Zakat

Etymology

The word Zakat comes from Arabic root z-k-w (ز ك و), meaning to purify. Zakat is considered a way to purify one's income and wealth from sometimes worldly, impure ways of acquisition. According to Sachiko Murata and William Chittick, "Just as ablutions purify the body and salat purifies the soul (in Islam), so zakat purifies possessions and makes them pleasing to God."

Doctrine

Quran

The Quran discusses charity in many verses, some of which relate to zakat. The word zakat, with the meaning used in Islam now, is found, for example, in suras: 7:156, 9:60, 19:31, 19:55, 21:73, 23:4, 27:3, 30:39, 31:4, and 41:7. Zakat is found in the early Medinan suras and described as obligatory for Muslims. It is given for the sake of salvation. Muslims believe those who give zakat can expect reward from God in the afterlife, while neglecting to give zakat can result in damnation. Zakat is considered part of the covenant between God and a Muslim.

Verse 2:177 (the Clear Qur'an translation) sums up the Quranic view of charity and almsgiving (another name for zakat is the poor due):

According to Yusuf al-Qaradawi, verse 9.5 of the Quran makes zakat one of three prerequisites for pagans to become Muslims: "but if they repent, establish prayers, and practice zakat they are your brethren in faith".

The Quran also lists who should receive the benefits of zakat, discussed in more detail below.

Mention of zakat after prayer suggests that it held a different role than almsgiving. Zakat served as a fine or payment for someone guilty of sin to have Muhammad pray for their purification.

Hadith

Each of the most trusted hadith collections in Islam have a book dedicated to zakat. Sahih Bukharis Book 24, Sahih Muslims Book 12, and Sunan Abu-Dawuds Book 9 discuss various aspects of zakat, including who must pay, how much, when and what. The 2.5% rate is also mentioned in the hadiths.

The hadiths admonish those who do not give the zakat. According to the hadith, refusal to pay or mockery of those who pay zakat is a sign of hypocrisy, and God will not accept the prayers of such people. The sunna also describes God's punishment for those who refuse or fail to pay zakat. On the day of Judgment, those who did not give the zakat will be held accountable and punished.

The hadith contain advice on the state-authorized collection of the zakat. The collectors are required not to take more than what is due, and those who are paying the zakat are asked not to evade payment. The hadith also warn of punishment for those who take zakat when they are not eligible to receive it (see Distribution below).

Amount

Main article: Calculation of Zakāt

The amount of zakat to be paid by an individual depends on the amount of money and the type of assets the individual possesses. The Quran does not provide specific guidelines on which types of wealth are taxable under the zakat, nor does it specify percentages to be given. However, it clearly indicates to donate the "surplus" of one's income. But the customary practice in the Islamic world has been that the amount of zakat paid on capital assets (e.g. money) is 2.5% (). Zakat is additionally payable on agricultural goods, precious metals, minerals, and livestock at a rate varying between 2.5% and 20% (1/5), depending on the type of goods.

Zakat is usually payable on assets continuously owned over one lunar year that are in excess of the nisab, a minimum monetary value. However, Islamic scholars have disagreed on this issue. For example, Abu Hanifa did not regard the nisab limit to be a pre-requisite for zakat, in the case of land crops, fruits and minerals. Other differences between Islamic scholars on zakat and nisab are acknowledged as follows by Yusuf al-Qaradawi,

Failure to pay

The consequence of failure to pay zakat has been a subject of extensive legal debate in traditional Islamic jurisprudence, particularly when a Muslim is willing to pay zakat but refuses to pay it to a certain group or the state. According to classical jurists, if the collector is unjust in the collection of zakat but just in its distribution, the concealment of property from him is allowed. If, on the other hand, the collector is just in the collection but unjust in the distribution, the concealment of property from him is an obligation (wajib). Furthermore, if the zakat is concealed from a just collector because the property owner wanted to pay his zakat to the poor himself, they held that he should not be punished for it. If collection of zakat by force was not possible, use of military force to extract it was seen as justified, as was done by Abu Bakr during the Ridda Wars, on the argument that refusing to submit to just orders is a form of treason. However, Abu Hanifa, the founder of the Hanafi school, disapproved of fighting when the property owners undertake to distribute the zakat to the poor themselves.

Some classical jurists held the view that any Muslim who consciously refuses to pay zakat is an apostate, since the failure to believe that it is a religious duty (fard) is a form of unbelief (kufr), and should be killed. However, prevailing opinion among classical jurists prescribed sanctions such as fines, imprisonment or corporal punishment. Some classical and contemporary scholars such as Ishaq Ibn Rahwayh and Yusuf al-Qaradawi have stated that the person who fails to pay Zakat should have the payment taken from them, along with half of his wealth. Additionally, those who failed to pay the zakat would face God's punishment in the afterlife on the day of Judgment.

In modern states where zakat payment is compulsory, failure to pay is regulated by state law similarly to tax evasion.

Distribution

According to the Quran's Surah Al-Tawba, there are eight categories of people (asnaf) who qualify to benefit from zakat funds.

Islamic scholars have traditionally interpreted this verse as identifying the following eight categories of Muslim causes to be the proper recipients of zakat:

1. Those living without means of livelihood (''Al-Fuqarā'''), the poor
2. Those who cannot meet their basic needs (Al-Masākīn), the needy
3. To zakat collectors (Al-Āmilīyn 'Alihā)
4. To persuade those sympathetic to or expected to convert to Islam (Al-Mu'allafatu Qulūbuhum), and potential allies in the cause of Islam
5. To free from slavery or servitude (Fir-Riqāb), slaves of Muslims who have or intend to free from their master by means of a kitabah contract
6. Those who have incurred overwhelming debts while attempting to satisfy their basic needs (Al-Ghārimīn), debtors who in pursuit of a worthy goal incurred a debt
7. Those fighting for a religious cause or a cause of God (Fī Sabīlillāh), or for Islamic warriors who fight against the unbelievers but are not salaried soldiers.
8. Wayfarers, stranded travellers (Ibnu Al-Sabīl), travellers who are traveling with a worthy goal but cannot reach their destination without financial assistance

Zakat should not be given to one's own parents, grandparents, children, grandchildren, spouses or the descendants of Muhammad.

Neither the Quran nor the Hadiths specify the relative division of zakat into the above eight categories. According to the Reliance of the Traveller, the Shafi'i school requires zakat is to be distributed equally among the eight categories of recipients, while the Hanafi school permits zakat to be distributed to all the categories, some of them, or just one of them. Classical schools of Islamic law, including Shafi'i, are unanimous that collectors of zakat are to be paid first, with the balance to be distributed equally amongst the remaining seven categories of recipients, even in cases where one group's need is more demanding.

Muslim scholars disagree whether zakat recipients can include non-Muslims. Islamic scholarship, historically, has taught that only Muslims can be recipients of zakat. In recent times, some state that zakat may be paid to non-Muslims after the needs of Muslims have been met, finding nothing in the Quran or sunna to indicate that zakat should be paid to Muslims only.

Additionally, the zakat funds may be spent on the administration of a centralized zakat collection system.

Role in society

The zakat is considered by Muslims to be an act of piety through which one expresses concern for the well-being of fellow Muslims, as well as preserving social harmony between the wealthy and the poor. Zakat promotes a more equitable redistribution of wealth and fosters a sense of solidarity amongst members of the Ummah.

Historical practice

Zakat, an Islamic practice initiated by the Islamic prophet Muhammad, was first collected on the first day of Muharram. It has played an important role throughout its history. Schact suggests that the idea of zakat may have entered Islam from Judaism, with roots in the Hebrew and Aramaic word zakut. disagree that the Qur'anic verses on zakat (or zakah) have roots in Judaism.

The caliph Abu Bakr, believed by Sunni Muslims to be Muhammad's successor, was the first to institute a statutory zakat system. Abu Bakr established the principle that the zakat must be paid to the legitimate representative of Muhammad's authority (i.e. himself). However certain tribes refused to pay zakat while staying under the name of Islam which was considered apostasy and led ultimately, to the Ridda wars.

The second and third caliphs, Umar ibn al-Khattab and Uthman ibn Affan, continued Abu Bakr's codification of the zakat. Uthman also modified the zakat collection protocol by decreeing that only "apparent" wealth was taxable, which had the effect of limiting zakat to mostly being paid on agricultural land and produce. During the reign of Ali ibn Abu Talib, the issue of zakat was tied to legitimacy of his government. After Ali, his supporters refused to pay zakat to Muawiyah I, as they did not recognize his legitimacy.

The practice of Islamic state-administered zakat was short-lived in Medina. During the reign of Umar bin Abdul Aziz (717–720 CE), it is reported that no one in Medina needed the zakat. After him, zakat came more to be considered as an individual responsibility. This view changed over Islamic history. Sunni Muslims and rulers, for example, considered collection and disbursement of zakat as one of the functions of an Islamic state; this view has continued in modern Islamic countries.

Zakat is one of the five pillars of Islam, and in various Islamic polities of the past was expected to be paid by all practising Muslims who have the financial means (nisab). In addition to their zakat obligations, Muslims were encouraged to make voluntary contributions (sadaqat). The zakat was not collected from non-Muslims, although they were required to pay the jizyah tax. Depending on the region, the dominant portion of zakat went typically to Amil (the zakat collectors) or Sabīlillāh (those fighting for religious cause, the caretaker of local mosque, or those working in the cause of God such as proselytizing non-Muslims to convert to Islam).

Contemporary practice

According to the researcher Russell Powell in 2010, zakat was mandatory by state law in Libya, Malaysia, Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, Sudan, and Yemen. There were government-run voluntary zakat contribution programs in Bahrain, Bangladesh, Egypt, Indonesia, Iran, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Maldives and the United Arab Emirates.

In a 2019 study conducted by the Institute for Social Policy and Understanding that examined philanthropy for American Muslims in comparison to other faith and non-faith groups, it was found that for American Muslims, Zakat was an important driver of charitable giving. This results in American Muslims being the most likely faith group studied to be motivated to donate based on a believed religious obligation (zakat), and a "feeling that those with more should help those with less", referencing again the concept and religious imperative behind Zakat.

Zakat status in Muslim countries

Collection

Today, in most Muslim countries, Zakat is at the discretion of Muslims over how and whether to pay, typically enforced by fear of God, peer pressure, and an individual's personal feelings. Among the Sunni Muslims, Zakat committees, linked to a religious cause or local mosque, collect zakat. Among the Shia Muslims, deputies on behalf of Imams collect the zakat.

In six of the 47 Muslim-majority countries—Libya, Malaysia, Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, Sudan and Yemen—zakat is obligatory and collected by the state. In Jordan, Bahrain, Kuwait, Lebanon, and Bangladesh, the zakat is regulated by the state, but contributions are voluntary.

The states where Zakat is compulsory differ in their definition of the base for zakat computation.

Under compulsory systems of zakat tax collection, such as Malaysia and Pakistan, evasion is very common and the zakat (alms tax) is regressive. A considerable number of Muslims accept their duty to pay zakat, but deny that the state has a right to levy it, and they may pay zakat voluntarily while evading official collection. In discretion-based systems of collection, studies suggest zakat is collected from and paid only by a fraction of Muslim population who can pay.

In the United Kingdom, which has a Muslim minority, more than three out of ten Muslims gave to charity (Zakat being described as "the Muslim practice of charitable donations"), according to a 2013 poll of 4000 people. According to the self-reported poll, British Muslims, on average, gave US$567 to charity in 2013, compared to $412 for Jews, $308 for Protestants, $272 for Catholics and $177 for atheists.

Distribution

The primary sources of sharia also do not specify to whom the zakat should be paid to zakat collectors claiming to represent one class of zakat beneficiary (for example, poor), collectors who were representing religious bodies, or collectors representing the Islamic state. This has caused significant conflicts and allegations of zakat abuse within the Islamic community, both historically

Fi Sabillillah is the most prominent asnaf in Southeast Asian Muslim societies, where it broadly construed to include funding missionary work, Quranic schools and anything else that serves the Islamic community (ummah) in general.

Role in society

In 2012, Islamic financial analysts estimated annual zakat spending between US$200 billion and US$1 trillion per year, which would be at least 15 times more than global humanitarian aid tracked by the United Nations. Islamic scholars and development workers state that much of this zakat practice is mismanaged, wasted or ineffective. About a quarter of the Muslim world continues to live on $1.25 a day or less, according to the 2012 report.

A 1999 study of Sudan and Pakistan, where zakat is mandated by the state, estimated that zakat proceeds ranged between 0.3 and 0.5 percent of GDP, while a more recent report put zakat proceeds in Malaysia at 0.1% of GDP. These numbers are far below what was expected when the governments of these countries tried to Islamize their economies, and the collected amount is too small to have a sizeable macroeconomic effect.

In a 2014 study,

Related terms

Zakat is required of Muslims only. For non-Muslims living in an Islamic state, sharia was historically seen as mandating jizya (poll tax). Other forms of taxation on Muslims or non-Muslims, that have been used in Islamic history, include kharaj (land tax), khums (tax on booty and loot seized from non-Muslims, sudden wealth), ushur (tax at state border, sea port, and each city border on goods movement, customs), kari (house tax) and chari (sometimes called maara, pasture tax).

There are differences in the interpretation and scope of zakat and other related taxes in various sects of Islam. For example, khums is interpreted differently by Sunnis and Shi'ites, with Shia expected to pay one fifth of their excess income after expenses as khums, while Sunnis do not. At least a tenth part of zakat and khums every year, among Shi'ites, after its collection by Imam and his religious deputies under its doctrine of niyaba, goes as income for its hierarchical system of Shia clergy. Among Ismaili sub-sect of Shias, the mandatory taxes which includes zakat, is called dasond, and 20% of the collected amount is set aside as income for the Imams. Some branches of Shia Islam treat the right to lead as Imam and right to receive 20% of collected zakat and other alms as a hereditary right of its clergy.

Sadaqah is another related term for charity, usually construed as a discretionary counterpart to zakat.

''Zakat al-Fitr''

Zakat al-Fitr or Sadaqat al-Fitr is another, smaller charitable obligation, mandatory for all Muslims—male or female, minor or adult as long as he/she has the means to do so—that is traditionally paid at the end of the fasting in the Islamic holy month of Ramadan.

Zakat al-Fitr is a fixed amount assessed per person, while Zakat al mal is based on personal income and property. According to one source, the Hidaya Foundation, the suggested Zakat al Fitr donation is based on the price of 1 Saa (approx. 3 kg) of rice or wheat at local costs, (as of 2015, approximately $7.00 in the U.S.).

References

Notes

Citations

Books and articles

• P. Bearman ed. (2012). Encyclopaedia of Islam, 2nd ed. Brill Online.
• Joseph J. Cordes, Robert D. Ebel, Jane Gravelle ed. (2005). Encyclopedia of Taxation and Tax Policy. Urban Institute
• John L. Esposito ed. (2009). The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World. Oxford University Press.
• Hunter, Shireen; Malik, Huma; Senturk, Recep (2005). Islam and Human Rights: Advancing a U.S.–Muslim Dialogue. Center for Strategic and International Studies, 2005.

References

1. "Zakat Al-Maal (Tithing)".
2. "Zakah".
3. Lessy. (2009). "Zakat (almsgiving) management in Indonesia: Whose job should it be?". La Riba Journal Ekonomi Islam.
4. Hallaq, Wael. (2013). "The impossible state: Islam, politics, and modernity's moral predicament". [[Columbia University Press]].
5. baran. (2024-12-25). "The Significance and Wisdom of Zakat in Islam".
6. (2022-03-08). "Islam: Islam at a glance". BBC – Religions.
7. Muḥammad ibn al-Ḥasan Ṭūsī (2010), ''Concise Description of Islamic Law and Legal Opinions'', {{ISBN. 978-1904063292, pp. 131–135.
8. Hefner R.W.. (2006). "Islamic economics and global capitalism". Society.
9. [[Elias Shoufani. Shoufani, Elias]] (1973), ''Al-Riddah and the Muslim Conquest of Arabia'', University of Toronto Press, {{ISBN. 978-0802019158.
10. Décobert, C. (1991), ''Le mendiant et le combattant, L’institution de l’islam'', Paris: Éditions du Seuil, pp. 238–240.
11. Medani Ahmed and Sebastian Gianci, ''Zakat'', Encyclopedia of Taxation and Tax Policy, p. 479, quote: "As one of the Islam's five pillars, zakat becomes an obligation due when, over a lunar year, one controls a combination of income and wealth equal to or above [[Nisaab]]."
12. (2015). "al-Kafi Volume 1 of 8". The Islamic Seminary Inc..
13. (2003). "Pakistan: Eye of the Storm". Yale University Press.
14. (2009). "Pakistan: The Struggle Within". Pearson Education India.
15. (18 October 2013). "South Asia: The Spectre of Terrorism". Routledge.
16. "The Comprehensive Aramaic Lexicon".
17. Benda-Beckmann, Franz von. (2007). "Social security between past and future: Ambonese networks of care and support". LIT Verlag, Münster.
18. (1998). "Islam: A challenge to welfare professionalism". Journal of Interprofessional Care.
19. {{qref. 9. 103
20. Murata, S. and Chittick, W. C. (1994), ''The vision of Islam'', IB Tauris, London, {{ISBN. 978-1557785169, p. 16
21. Yusuf al-Qaradawi (1999), Monzer Kahf (transl.), Fiqh az-Zakat, Dar al Taqwa, London, Volume 1, {{ISBN. 978-967-5062-766, p. xl, "Qur'an used the word zakah, in the meaning known to Muslims now, as early as the beginning of the Makkan period. This is found in Suras: 7:156, 19:31 and 55, 21:72, 23:4, 27:7, 30:39, 31:3, and 41:7."
22. "Center for Muslim-Jewish Engagement".
23. Heck, Paul L.. (2006). "Taxation". [[Brill Publishers]].
24. Yusuf al-Qaradawi (1999), Monzer Kahf (transl.), Fiqh az-Zakat, Dar al Taqwa, London, Volume 1, {{ISBN. 978-967-5062-766, p. xix.
25. Donner, Fred M.. (2010-05-15). "Muhammad and the Believers: At the Origins of Islam". Harvard University Press.
26. "Sahih al-Bukhari}}, Book: 24 – Obligatory Charity Tax (Zakat) at {{cite web".
27. [http://www.usc.edu/org/cmje/religious-texts/hadith/bukhari/024-sbt.php Obligatory Charity Tax (Zakat)] {{Webarchive. link. (4 December 2014 , Sahih Bukhari, University of Southern California)
28. "Sahih Muslim}}, Book: 12 – The Book of Zakat at {{cite web".
29. [http://www.usc.edu/org/cmje/religious-texts/hadith/muslim/005-smt.php The Book of Zakat (Kitab Al-Zakat)] {{Webarchive. link. (4 December 2014 , Sahih Muslim, University of Southern California)
30. "Sunan Abi Dawud}}, Book: 9 – Zakat (Kitab Al-Zakat) at {{cite web".
31. [http://www.usc.edu/org/cmje/religious-texts/hadith/abudawud/009-sat.php Zakat (Kitab Al-Zakat)] {{Webarchive. link. (4 December 2014 , Sunan Abu-Dawood, University of Southern California)
32. {{hadith-usc. abudawud. 9. 1568
33. "Book:12, Hadith:28}}, {{cite web".
34. {{hadith-usc. muslim. 5. 2161, {{hadith-usc. muslim. 5. 2223
35. {{hadith-usc. Bukhari. 2. 24. 486
36. A. Zysow, "Zakāt." ''Encyclopaedia of Islam'', 2nd ed. {{page needed. (May 2023{{ISBN?)
37. Medani Ahmed and Sebastian Gianci, "''Zakat''", ''Encyclopedia of Taxation and Tax Policy'', pp. 479–481
38. Kuran, Timur. (1996). "Fundamentalisms and the state: remaking polities, economies, and militance". University of Chicago Press.
39. Kuran, Timur. (2010). "Islam and Mammon: The Economic Predicaments of Islamism". Princeton University Press.
40. Scott, J. C. (1987), "Resistance without protest and without organization: peasant opposition to the Islamic Zakat and the Christian Tithe", ''Comparative studies in society and history'', 29(03), 417–452
41. Yusuf al-Qaradawi (1999), Monzer Kahf (transl.), Fiqh az-Zakat, Dar al Taqwa, London, [http://monzer.kahf.com/books/english/fiqhalzakah_vol1.pdf Volume 1] and [http://monzer.kahf.com/books/english/fiqhalzakah_vol2.pdf Volume 2]
42. Yusuf al-Qaradawi (1999), Monzer Kahf (transl.) King Abdulaziz University, Saudi Arabia, [http://monzer.kahf.com/books/english/fiqhalzakah_vol1.pdf Fiqh az-Zakat, Volume 1], Dar al -Taqwa, London, {{ISBN. 978-967-5062-766, pp. xxi–xxii.
43. (2014). "Muhammad in History, Thought, and Culture: An Encyclopedia of the Prophet of God". Abc-Clio.
44. Yusuf al-Qaradawi. (2011). "Fiqh Al-Zakāh: A Comprehensive Study of Zakah Regulations and Philosophy in the Light of the Qurʼan and Sunna". Islamic Book Trust in affiliation with The Other Press.
45. Abdullahi Ahmed An-Na'im Na (2010), ''Islam and the Secular State: Negotiating the Future of Shari'a'', Harvard University Press, {{ISBN. 978-0674034563, pp. 58–63
46. Koylu, Mustafa (2003), ''Islam and its Quest for Peace: Jihad, Justice and Education'', {{ISBN. 978-1565181809, pp. 88–89
47. Nicolas Prodromou Aghnides. (1916). "Mohammedan Theories of Finance, Volume 70". Columbia university.
48. Nicolas Prodromou Aghnides. (1916). "Mohammedan Theories of Finance, Volume 70". Columbia university.
49. Yusuf, Al Qardawi. (1984). "Fiquh of Zakat Volume 1". King Abdul Aziz University Center for Research in Islamic Economics.
50. Ariff, Mohamed. (1991). "The Islamic voluntary sector in Southeast Asia: Islam and the economic development of Southeast Asia". Institute of Southeast Asian Studies.
51. Benda-Beckmann, Franz von. (2007). "Social security between past and future: Ambonese networks of care and support". LIT Verlag, Münster.
52. M.A. Mohamed Salih. (2004). "Islamism and its enemies in the Horn of Africa". Indiana University Press.
53. Juynboll, T.W. ''Handleiding tot de Kennis van de Mohaamedaansche Wet volgens de Leer der Sjafiitische School'', 3rd ed., Brill Academic, pp. 85–88
54. "Reliance of the Traveller".
55. Masahiko Aoki, Timur Kuran and Gérard Roland (2012), Political consequences of the Middle East's Islamic economic legacy, in Institutions and Comparative Economic Development, Palgrave Macmillan, {{ISBN. 978-1137034038, Chapter 5, pp. 124–148
56. Benthal, Jonathan. "The Qur'an's Call to Alms Zakat, the Muslim Tradition of Alms-giving". ISIM Newsletter.
57. (2009). "Islamic finance: principles and practice". Edward Elgar Publishing.
58. "حكم استثمار أموال الزكاة والصدقات – إسلام ويب – مركز الفتوى".
59. Scott, James C.. (1985). "Weapons of the weak: everyday forms of peasant resistance". Yale University Press.
60. Jawad, Rana. (2009). "Social welfare and religion in the Middle East: a Lebanese perspective". The Policy Press.
61. "Shia Calendar".
62. Weiss, Anita M.. (1986). "Islamic reassertion in Pakistan: the application of Islamic laws in a modern state". Syracuse University Press.
63. 978-967-5062-766, pp. xxxix–xl
64. See the discussion about Children of Israel in verses {{qref. 9. 60-66
65. (2006). "The development of Islamic ritual". Ashgate Publishing.
66. Bonner, Michael (2003), ''Poverty and Charity in Middle Eastern Contexts'', State University of New York Press, {{ISBN. 978-0791457382, p. 15: "In the old Arabic narratives about the early Muslim community and its conquests and quarrels, ''zakat'' and ''sadaqa'' loom large at several moments of crisis. These include the beginning of Muhammad's prophetic career in Mecca, when what appear to be the earliest pieces of scripture insist on almsgiving more than any other human activity. These moments of crisis also include the wars of the ''ridda'' or apostasy in C.E. 632–634, just after Muhammad's death. At that time most of the Arabs throughout the peninsula refused to continue paying ''zakat'' (now a kind of tax) to the central authority in Medina; Abu Bakr, upon assuming the leadership, swore he would force them all to pay this ''zakat'', "even if they refuse me only a [camel's] hobble of it," and sent armies that subdued these rebels or "apostates" in large-scale battles that were soon followed by the great Islamic conquests beyond the Arabian peninsula itself."
67. Turner, Bryan. (2007). "Religious authority and the new media". Theory, Culture & Society.
68. Hashmi, Sohail H.. (2010). "Poverty and Morality: Religious and Secular Perspectives". Cambridge University Press.
69. Faiz Mohammad (1991), [https://www.jstor.org/stable/41259525 "Prospects of Poverty Eradication Through the Existing 'Zakat' System in Pakistan"], ''The Pakistan Development Review'', Vol. 30, No. 4, 1119–1129
70. Tamimi, Azzam. (2001). "Rachid Ghannouchi: a democrat within Islamism". Oxford University Press.
71. Bogle, Emory C.. (1998). "Islam: origin and belief". University of Texas Press.
72. Khatab, Sayed. (2006). "The power of sovereignty: the political and ideological philosophy of Sayyid Qutb". Taylor & Francis.
73. Zaman, M. Raquibuz. (2001). "Boundaries and justice: diverse ethical perspectives". Princeton University Press.
74. (2009). "Zakat: Drawing Insights for Legal Theory and Economic Policy from Islamic Jurisprudence". University of Pittsburgh Tax Review.
75. (July 17, 2019). "American Muslim Philanthropy: A Data-Driven Comparative Profile".
76. Clark, Janine A.. (2004). "Islam, charity, and activism: middle-class networks and social welfare in Egypt, Jordan, and Yemen". Indiana University Press.
77. (1996). "Fundamentalisms and the state: remaking polities, economies, and militance". University of Chicago Press.
78. Samiul Hasan. (2015). "Human Security and Philanthropy: Islamic Perspectives and Muslim Majority Country Practices". Springer.
79. (2006). "Islam and the moral economy: the challenge of capitalism". Routledge.
80. Tripp, Charles. (2006). "Islam and the Everyday World: Public Policy Dilemmas". Cambridge University Press.
81. Kogelmann, Franz. (2002). "Social welfare in Muslim societies in Africa". Nordic Africa Institute.
82. (1996). "Fundamentalisms and the state: remaking polities, economies, and militance". University of Chicago Press.
83. (22 July 2013). "Muslims give more to charity than others, UK poll says". nbcnews.com.
84. Lessy, Z. (2009), Zakat (Alms-Giving) Management In Indonesia: Whose Job Should It Be?, La Riba Journal of Islamic Economy, 3(1), pp. 155–175
85. Ariff, Mohamed. (1991). "The Islamic voluntary sector in Southeast Asia: Islam and the economic development of Southeast Asia". Institute of Southeast Asian Studies.
86. (1 June 2012). "Analysis: A faith-based aid revolution in the Muslim world?". irinnews.org.
87. about 400 million people
88. Shirazi, Nasim. (May 2014). "Integrating Zakāt and Waqf into the Poverty Reduction Strategy of the IDB Member Countries". Islamic Economic Studies.
89. Böwering, Gerhard, ed. (2013), ''The Princeton Encyclopedia of Islamic Political Thought'', Princeton University Press. p. 545
90. Lewis, Bernard (2002), ''The Arabs in History'', Oxford: Oxford University Press, {{ISBN. 0-19-280310-7, pp. 70–74
91. Iqbal, Zafar and Lewis, Mervyn (2009) ''An Islamic Perspective on Governance'', {{ISBN. 978-1847201386, pp. 99–115
92. Nienhaus, Volker (2006), ''Zakat, taxes and public finance in Islam, in Islam and the Everyday World: Public Policy Dilemmas''. Sohrab Behdad, Farhad Nomani (eds.), {{ISBN. 978-0415368230, pp. 176–189
93. Lambton, K.S.. (October 1948). "An Account of the Tārīkhi Qumm". Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies.
94. Hamid, S.. (1995). "Bookkeeping and accounting control systems in a tenth-century Muslim administrative office". Accounting, Business & Financial History.
95. Kulke, H. and Rothermund, D. (1998), ''A History of India'', 3rd ed., Routledge, {{ISBN. 0-415-15482-0, pp. 158–163
96. Momen, Moojan. (1987). "An Introduction to Shi'i Islam: The History and Doctrines of Twelver Shi'ism". Yale University Press.
97. Ghobadzadeh, Naser (2014), ''Religious Secularity: A Theological Challenge to the Islamic State'', Oxford University Press, {{ISBN. 978-0199391172, pp. 193–195
98. Martin, Richard (2003) ''Encyclopedia of Islam & the Muslim World'', Macmillan Reference, {{ISBN. 978-0028656038, pp. 274, 350–351
99. (2014). "Global Religious Movements Across Borders: Sacred Service". Ashgate.
100. (2005). "Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopedia". Psychology Press..
101. "Sadaqat-ul-Fitr".
102. Kasule, O. H.. (1986). "Muslims in Trinidad and Tobago". Journal Institute of Muslim Minority Affairs.
103. The collected amount is used to pay the zakat collectors and to the poor Muslims so that they may be provided with a means to celebrate [[Eid ul-Fitr. 'Eid al-Fitr]] (the [[festival]] of breaking the fast) following Ramadan, along with the rest of the Muslims.Al-Hamar, M., Dawson, R., & Guan, L. (2010), ''A culture of trust threatens security and privacy in Qatar'', IEEE 10th International Conference, {{ISBN. 978-1-4244-7547-6, pp. 991–995
104. Buehler, M.. (2008). "The rise of shari'a by-laws in Indonesian districts: An indication for changing patterns of power accumulation and political corruption". South East Asia Research.