Trot (music)

Etymology

The name "trot" is a shortened form of "foxtrot", a style of ballroom dance that influenced the simple two-beat rhythm of trot music. Except two-beat rhythm, trot and foxtrot do not share any other notable characteristics.

Characteristics

Rhythm

The trot is known for being composed in a two-beat rhythm, also known as the duple metre. In its early days, trot music was often composed using the pentatonic scale and minor keys. This pattern is called an anhemitonic scale or anhemitonic pentatonic scale, which was characteristic in Korean 'Gyeonggi-minyo' and other folk music such as early Japanese enka. The pentatonic scale consists of five degrees: of the natural major scale, the 4th and 7th degrees are omitted, and to form the pentatonic minor scale, all these 5 degrees will descend 3 degrees. Before 1950, the pentatonic minor scale dominated in popularity, however, the pentatonic major scale had started to become more popular. After the Japanese occupation, trot music was composed using the heptatonic scale and major keys. In trot music, lower tones are generally sung with vibrato, while higher tones are sung with the flexing or turning technique called 'kkeokk-ki' (literally means flexing, ).

Kkeokk-ki

The 'Kkeokk-ki' technique may be better explained by the gruppetto ornament of Western classical music theory. A note is figured as if it had been split into two or four subsidiary notes. And the voice is inflected to these imaginary notes: e.g. one quarter note is split into four sixteenth notes: (1) one in original pitch - (2) one in upper pitch - (3) one in lower pitch - (1) one in original pitch again (see below image, the example measure is from Na Hun-a's "물레방아 도는데", "Turning Waterwell"). Kkeokk-ki happens in the transition between two notes in the original pitch. For ordinary listeners, it is not easy to quickly perceive the subtlety of this technique. However, any trot singer can hardly do without the elaborated effect of Kkeokk-ki.

Lyrics

Most of trot's lyrical content is based on two popular themes, although they vary with the times: 1) love and parting, 2) longing for a sweet home. Some see the origin of this sentimentalism in "colonial tragedy". But that may well be related to the ancient tradition of resentment or deep sorrow () in Korean culture. Elegiac song texts with minor scales are the most common. In addition to the elegiac rhythm and the content of the lyrics, the 'new stream' in the theater (), introduced in the 1910s from Japan, has also contributed to the fact that trot is dominated by the moods of compassion and pain. Because the pieces of this 'new stream' frequently dealt with themes such as the family tragedy, love affairs - the best pieces were "Janghanmong" (), "Cheated in Love, Cried of Money" (); the great hit song "Don't Cry Hongdo" (홍도야 울지 마라) sings just the tragic story of the piece "Cheated in love, Cried of money". So it is understandable that many Koreans tend to be sad or compassionate when they hear trot songs. Sentimental words like 'crying' and 'leaving' have been consistently the most popular. But speech levels, which are recognizable at a sentence's final ending in Korean, have changed with the times; since 1990 the sentence in the low-level of politeness () is often used.

Performance

Trot music is mainly performed by one singer or at most duet. It is rare for a trot singer to play any instrument while singing. The playing of the instruments has something of an accompaniment function. The song usually being played by an orchestra or a big band as accompaniment. These use mostly backing vocals, usually consisting of 4 female vocalists, but rarely of mixed vocalists. The trot music shows often include a group of dancers. Thus, a typical broadcasting band orchestra for trot consists of instrumentalists, chorus, and dancers. Of course, it is possible for a singer to perform a song accompanied by one or two instruments; e.g. Joo Hyun-mi sings in her YouTube channel, accompanied only by guitar and accordion. Apart from the talent of a singer, the composer plays an important role in the success of a trot song. Since there are few trot singers and songwriters, a trot singer often gets his own singing style with the composer who always prepares a song for release with the singer.

Naming

The name trot has been widely used since the 1980s, even though the designation itself dates back to the 1950s. In the 1920s the name yuhaeng-changga () was in use; this name comes from the fact that yuhaeng means "trend, fashion, popular", and all sorts of western music, e.g. hymn, nursery rhyme, folksong, etc., as well as Japanese enka, which were introduced to the Korean people at the end of the 19th century, were called changga; popular music in the western style was called yuhaeng-changga, later abbreviated yuhaengga ().

The trot is sometimes referred to as seongin-gayo (), which means "music for adults". Trot also has a newer name, jeontong-gayo (), literally "traditional popular song". Calling trot jeontong-gayo may implicitly refer to national self-confidence and give people a sense of self-esteem, so that the uncomfortable suspicion of foreign origin would be eased. The name daejung-gayo (), or "music for the public", has been used historically for trot, but it is a wider term for all sorts of popular music, so K-pop for example, also falls under the label of daejung-gayo. Additionally, instead of teuroteu (트로트), the term teurot (트롯) is occasionally seen in written Korean.

History

Origin

Trot music originated in Korea during the Japanese occupation of Korea. It is believed that trot's closest ancestors were Japanese enka. After the liberation of the Korean peninsula, however, trot has continued on its own path. There is an investigation showing that the songs that were published in Korea and Japan between 1945 and 1950 used in both countries pretty much the same amount of duple metre rhythm in a minor scale. It is sometimes asserted that trot's origins can be traced to siga (), a traditional form of Korean poetry, although this only partially explains origins since it is relevant to poetic and lyrical aspects only. Some suggest that trot could have been influenced by Korean folk music, which does have some resemblance to trot's vocal inflections, even if Korean traditional music's rhythmic structure differs from trot's fixed duple metre. It was true that a genre of Sin-minyo (new folk song, ) was in circulation in the 1930s; but this music was simply modified versions of traditional folk songs e.g. Arirang or 'Taryeong' songs accompanied by Western instruments.

It is an old controversial issue whether trot originated during Japanese colonial rule and thus is not a genuine Korean popular music. This problem has caused quite a stir twice. Once the government took a position in the 1960s that the supposedly 'Japanese-tinged' songs suffered at the hands of the censor. The second discussion took place by the musicians and cultural critics in the 80s, called the 'Ppongjjak debate'.

'Japanese-tinged' censorship

The particular hostile emotional response to the former Japanese colonial rule has led the government to banish the Japanese legacy. This also happened in the cultural area. There were listed songs that seemed to have been influenced by enka. At the time, such songs were disparagingly called 'Japanese-tinged' () and the songs that violated conventional morality were called 'degenerate songs' (). First, in 1965 the broadcasters decided not to send out any more 'Japanese-tinged' songs. To it responded the singer association with the vehement protest. After that, in 1968 'Art and Cultural Ethics Commission' (the earliest commission of today's 'Korea Communications Standards Commission') decided to banish 108 songs and later more; the reasons were mainly 'obscene, vulgar, degenerated and Japanese-tinged". Lee Mi-ja's "Camellia Lady" was on the list in 1965 as well as in 1968. She once recalled, "The then-President Park Chung Hee, who was blamed for the censorship, did not know that the song had been banned, so he asked her to sing it at a banquet." The censorship culminated in the 1970s, most affected were the songs of the so-called 'acoustic guitar singers'. The ban on "Camellia Lady" and others was lifted in 1987. However, this kind of censorship, which finds much of its breeding ground from history, is still ongoing. Just as "Japanese-tinged" trot songs were banished, so the anti-Japanese leftists in the 2010s insisted on having to replace the school songs composed by pro-Japan musicians.

Ppongjjak debate

In 1984 this dispute entered the national discourse in South Korea. The debate, initiated in a provocative article "Who does claim Ppongjjak as ours?" in 1984, centered on whether or not trot music originated from either Japanese or Korean music. Because the genre was borrowed from Japan during the colonial period of Korea, as well as incorporated Japanese song influences in Changga, the genre has been subject to questioning its Korean identity. This Korean identity question is subtly rooted in the argument that the Japanese cultural suppression policy led to Koreans uncritically accepting the popular music trot influenced by enka. Anti-Japanese critics went so far as to tag trot as artifacts from the Japanese colonial period. This probably one-sided statement was answered by musicians and critics who saw things differently and responded; the claim on the part of Korean classical music that trot is Japanese-tinged and thus such songs should be forbidden, is a useless judgment of the colonial victim mentality. The debate back and forth was held in the newspaper Hanguk Daily News from November to December 1984. Since no concrete evidence has arisen to validate either side, this debate continues to exist when discussing the origins of trot music.

1920s–1950: Formation

(사의 찬미) (오빠는 풍각쟁이)

Before the 1920s, there was little information about popular Western music. In the 1920s, some recordings with a vague resemblance to trot were heard around Korea, but these were likely forms of Western popular music. To detail trot music's beginnings, the following songs are presented as 'forerunners':

Singer Yun Sim-deok () recorded "In Praise of Death" () 1926 by Japanese Nitto Records. It is often regarded as the first 'Yuhaengchangga'. Yun Sim-deok was a soprano. She had an affair with a married man, with whom she ran away and escaped: on a boat trip to Japan in 1927, she threw herself into the sea with the lover - there is a Korean film about this story. After her death, just such a story made the song widely known. The song was not originally composed, but Yun Sim-deok wrote lyrics and then transferred it to the waltz melody of "Waves of the Danube" by Ion Ivanovici. The song itself actually contains a few of the characteristics of trot.

"Pupil Song" (), first recorded in May 1921 and sung by a Korean Christian youth group, became popular. This song belongs to marching songs. The melody of "Pupil song" was borrowed from "Railway Song" (鉄道唱歌), which Japanese composer Oono Umekawa had composed in 1900. Who wrote the lyrics of "Pupil song" is unknown. Several singers, e.g. Chae Gyu-yeop (), Go Un-bong (), recorded this song. The song became popular because the encouraging mood, evoked by a beat typical of marching songs, was appealing to those oppressed by Japanese rule. On the other hand, the Japanese "Railway Song" was later adapted to fit North Korean communist ideals, titled "Revolutionary Song Against Japan" () and "Rise Proletariat" ().

A new contemporary music style, called manyo (), appeared in the 1930s. Its origins can be traced to Japanese *mandan *(漫談). This genre is characterised by satirical storytelling; hence its songs were also known as 'comic' songs. Some analyze the genesis and the circulation of this genre in the Japanese colonial era from a socially critical point of view. Whether this music actually had the educational function and had an effect on the catharsis of desire in society remains but open. One of manyo's most popular songs was "My Older Brother Is A Busker" (), recorded in 1938 by Park Hyang-lim (). It is noteworthy that a manyo "Pleasant Old Man From The Country" (), recorded in 1936 by Gang Hong-sik (), was an adaption of George W. Johnson's "The Laughing Song" (1895). Later in 1970 "Pleasant Old Man From the Country" was remade as "Seoul Tour" () by comedian Seo Yeong-chun () and became a hit. Recorded in 1931, released 1932

In the period of colonial rule, pop culture in Korea was clearly influenced by Japan, and Western culture (primarily from Christian missionaries). Many musicians, such as Yun Sim-deok, Chae Gyu-yeop, and Park Hyang-lim, were educated in Japan or by institutions founded by missionaries. They imitated songs from Japan or hymns and melodies from the West. In the 1920s there were few Korean composers who wrote original popular music. In the 1930s, Korean songwriters began composing original popular songs whose anhemitonic pentatonic scale was typical for trot as well as for enka. Lee Aerisu () recorded "Traces of Castle Ruins" () in 1931(released 1932), later remade under the title "황성 옛터" by many trot singers. This song marked a milestone in trot music. In 1931 the first countrywide competition for the new singers took place, in which Go Bok-su () was chosen and became one of the most prominent trot singers: his debut song, "Away From Home" (,later titled 타향살이) became a hit. In 1933 Okeh records company was founded, which promoted the development of trot and produced a lot of hit songs. :Hit trot songs in the 1930s:

• "Traces Of Castle Ruins" (황성 옛터, 1932)
• "Living Away From Home" (타향살이, 1934)
• "Tears of Mokpo" (목포의 눈물, 1935)
• "Serenade Of Sorrow" (애수의 소야곡, 1936)
• "Tearful Tumen River" (눈물 젖은 두만강, 1938)
• "Don't Cry Hongdo" (홍도야 울지 마라, 1939)

Before 1940, minor and pentatonic scales were predominant in trot. Thereafter the major key was used more often. This did not occur in Japanese enka at the time, hence the development is considered peculiar to trot. The simpler melodies of trot were enriched by it, gradually cheerful rhythms were created in the major key. But in the early 1940s, the country was overshadowed by the Pacific War. 5 years after the liberation from the Japanese colonial rule, the country suffered again under the Korean War in 1950. Nevertheless, several songs have been released during the 1940s (see below list). They are considered to be among the most significant examples, whose rhythms and moods profoundly influenced the development of the genre. So it is hardly possible to speak of trot without these songs. :Hit trot songs in the 1940s:

• "Traveler's Sadness" (나그네 설움, 1940)
• "Wild Rose" (찔레꽃, 1942)
• "Bindae-tteok Gentleman" (빈대떡 신사, 1943)
• "Weeping Over The Hill Of Baktalchae" (울고 넘는 박달재, 1948)
• "Moonlit Night Of Silla" (신라의 달밤, 1949)
• "Rainy Gomoryeong" (비 내리는 고모령, 1949)

1950s: Diversification and the 8th US Army Clubs

After Japan's colonial rule over the Korean Peninsula and the Korean War, few remnants were left of the music industry since survival remained many people's priority. Record companies, most of which were founded in the colonial era, began to struggle. Yet vinyl records were the primary way to distribute music to the population since radios were not easy to purchase in the '50s; according to estimates, about 350,000 radios were supplied nationwide in 1959. National TV broadcasting began in 1956 and commercial TV broadcasting began in 1959. In 1957 US Army also built a transmitting station 'American Forces Korean Network' (AFKN). AFKN sometimes reached the largest US broadcaster abroad. In 2012 the previously independent AFKN was grouped under the 'AFN-Pacific Korea'. It's fair to say that AFKN unconsciously played for almost half a century the role of the US culture mediator. Many Koreans who were able to understand English had absorbed the western culture from this channel. Mass media was a way to spread songs, another way was records. Songs were released as singles or, sometimes, as EPs. LP record album production began in 1958.

In the 1950s, two aspects should be emphasized. On the one hand, war and its effects had left its mark on trot music; wartime was reflected in songs. These included: the ode to soldiers that was "A Serenade of the Front Line" (, 1952), stories of separations during the Hungnam evacuation told in "Be Strong Geum-sun" (, 1953), and the joy and sorrow of refugees in "Farewell Busan Station" (, 1953) by Nam In-su (). The country's situation was reflected in the lamenting lyrics of "Spring Days Are Passing" () by Baek Seol-hee (), released in 1953. A family of abducted prisoners of war was a subject in "Heartbreaking Miari Hill" (, 1956). This song has been subsequently remade by many trot singers. thumb|The Kim sisters with Dean Martin On the other hand, some tried to overcome the devastation war brought. Trot music and modern Korean music as a whole was revitalised from the cultural exchange in US Army clubs. These clubs were the linchpin for some entertainers. In 1954, the Eighth United States Army was moved from Japan to Korea, stationed in Seoul Yongsan Garrison. Musicians, promoted by United Service Organizations, visited the 8th US army base to give a morale-boosting concert. The visit of Marilyn Monroe in 1954 was the most sensational; Jane Russell in 1957 and Nat King Cole in 1963 visited. The US army also enjoyed Korean artists. Koreans thereafter called the US Army clubs 'the 8th US Army Stage' (). There were two types of these stages; one was housed in the garrisons - in addition to Yongsan Garrison, the Camp Market club in Bupyeong District was also very popular. On the other hand, private clubs were opened around the garrisons, the so-called 'military camp town' (), e.g. in Dongducheon, Paju, Itaewon, where both soldiers and civilians could enter. While working there, the musicians immediately became acquainted with American music culture and trends. They got to know different genres like blues, jazz, swing, tango, contemporary folk and country music, etc. As a result, fundamental changes of song titles, lyrics and rhythms in Korean popular music took place. They later played a leading role as contemporary influences on South Korean music. Important trot composers like Lee Bong-jo (), Kim Hee-gap (), Kim In-bae (), Park Chun-seok (), played instruments or worked as bandmasters in the 8th US army clubs. A lot of the famous rock bands and singers in the 60s and the 70s had their roots there. Some trot singers who started their career there are Choi Hee-jun (), Bae Ho, Han Myeong-suk (), Hyeon Mi, Cho Yong-pil. Female trio singers The Kim Sisters became popular during this time, as their performances drew appeal from American soldiers and audiences, catapulting them to fame when they performed on The Ed Sullivan Show during the 1960s.

But the different genres have actually had little to do with the melodies of trot. They were more of an inspiration to diversify and modernise. Only the name 'blues' in the titles had been widely used since the 1930s; this came from Japanese examples. It was not intended for the blues genre, but blues' retarding 4 strokes rhythm caught the songwriter's attention so that they called some songs 'xx Blues'. During this time, songwriters came up with songs by giving newfangled titles in English: e.g. "Shoeshine Boy" (, 1952), "Tango In The Night" (, 1953), "Evening Rain Blues" (, 1956), "Nilliri Mambo" (, 1957), '"Avec Youth" (, 1957), "Arizona Cowboy" (, 1959), "Daejeon Blues" (, 1959).

1960s: Enhancements

The country was slowly recovering from the aftermath of the war, although the political situation remained unstable. This ongoing disorder of society caused the military coup d'état in 1961. Despite this political turmoil, pop culture continued on its own path. Songwriters and singers who had picked up fresh ideas from US Army clubs and cultural exchange with Westerners incorporated them into trot. Modern sensibilities fused with those traditional to Korea in new songs. Han Myeong-suk released "Yellow Shirt Man" () in 1961, in a swing style. Its success swept across the country, so the singer from a nobody became a star. A few years later, a new trot singer rose to fame. Lee Mi-ja recorded () in 1964, the title song for the She recorded a lot of hit songs in the 1960s like "Yellow Robe Mast" (, 1964), "Cry Fever" (, 1965), "Heuksando Lady" (, 1967), "A Woman's Life" (, 1968), "A Father Goose" (, 1969). Through her numerous hit songs and over two thousand trot songs she has released during her 60-year career, she is the singer of trot par excellence.

Well, the two songs evoke different images of people at the time. The image of the "Yellow Shirt Man" bursting with vitality was portrayed, but "Camellia Lady" was the traditional female figure in Korea who practices patience and fidelity in marriage. Kim In-bae (), at that time a trumpet player in the US Army club, was one of the composers who aimed to update trot music. Therefore, in composing he oriented more on contemporary American pop, which he was familiar with in US Army clubs than the sensibilities and tone of conventional trot. Kim's "The Old Familiar Faces" (, 1963) was in a waltz style, whilst Kim's "Red Shoes Lady" (, recorded by Nam Il-hae (, 1963) and another renewal-loving composer Son Seok-u's () "Yellow Shirt Man" had elements of swing music. The prominent trot composer Park Chun-seok, who had debuted as a pianist in US Army Club, also wrote ballad-style music like "Early Rain" (, 1966) in addition to conventional trot. This song and Choi Sook Ja's hit song "Forsythia Girl" ( and Patti Kim's hit songs, "Don't Forget You" (), "Love Went By Leaving Autumn Behind" (, 1968), "Does Anyone Know This Person?" (), all composed by Park, had semblances of what would become popular 'adult contemporary music'.

Through these composers and others, trot music became multifaceted, livelier and more spirited. The two following individuals were among the most successful trot singers in the '60s, known for their distinctive bass-baritone voices. Choi Hee-jun's talent was recognised by Son Seok-u, and he debuted with "A Pastoral Song" (, 1961). This song may belong to the genre of contemporary folk music. Other relative hits had less of a conventional trot sound and more of a classic pop sound, despite being in a duple metre like most trot. Examples include "My Lover Is Old Miss" (, 1961), "Barefooted Youth" (, 1964), "Student Boarder" (, 1965), "Palto-Gangsan" (, 1967). (안개 낀 장충단 공원) Bae Ho (), then a drummer in Camp Market club, recorded his debut song "Arrow Of Love" (, 1963) with tango rhythm. His early death at age 29 by nephritis and his songs made him a trot legend. In 1967, he released two significant songs "Return to Samgakji" () and "Foggy Jangchungdan Park" (). The deeply vibrating soft voice was his trademark. After his death in 1971, many tried to imitate his singing style. It was suspected that several fake LPs, released under the name Bae Ho, should have been in circulation. Bae Ho and Nam In-su were the singers whose voice was often forged. By analyzing his voice, a few of his LPs were identified as counterfeit. Mean opinion score test with two mentioned songs has shown that Bae's voice moves between 100 and 300 Hz while singing. This is the frequency of a male average voice in a normal conversation. So it was explainable that his voice sounded so gentle while singing.

In the 1960s, the government intervened in popular culture and banished such songs that it considered 'Japanese-tinged' or 'unsound' while promoting the 'sound' songs. Of course, composers still wrote sentimental songs, but even happy songs were increasingly popular. Kim Sang-hee () was one of the singers who mostly sang 'happy songs'. Examples of the 'happy songs' in the second half of the 1960s are: "Southern Village Over The Mountain" (, 1965), "Beanpole Mr. Kim" (, 1966), "Baldy Man" (, 1967), "Honey!" (, 1968), "Song Of Seoul" (, 1969), "Sergeant Kim From Vietnam" (, 1969), "Seosan Seaside Village" (, 1969). This included the traditional folk song. Kim Serena () was the star for Sin-minyo (i.e. new Korean folk song). It almost seemed like she was a trot singer, but that was a unique phenomenon. Her hit songs: "Gapdori and Gapsuni" (, 1966), "Sae-Taryeong" (, 1967), "Seongju-Puli" (, 1969). The popularity of Sin-minyo lasted until the first half of the 1970s. During this time Kim Serena, Choi Jeong-ja, Kim Bu-ja and Ha Chun-hwa made Sin-minyo still popular.

The young generation, born after the liberation of the Korean peninsula, now appeared on the trot stage and later became leading trot singers in the 1970s. Nam Jin () made his debut at the age of 20 with "Seoul Playboy" (, 1965), Na Hun-a () at the age of 17 with "Long Journey" (, 1966), Moon Joo-ran () at the age of 16 with "Song Of Dongsuk" (, 1966), Ha Chun-hwa as a child performer (6 years old) with "Filial Daughter Simcheong" (, 1961). These singers have since released many songs of Park Chun-seok, and earned the nickname 'Park's troop'. In this decade, several composers also made their name known, among others Lee Bong-jo, Gil Ok-yun, Shin Jung-hyeon, Jeong Min-seop, all later composed a significant number of works.

1970s: Heyday

South Korea became industrialised in the 1970s. As economic growth began, ordinary people became more and more interested in cultural life. Mass media such as radio and TV made trot widespread across the country - the household ownership of televisions rose rapidly from 6.4% in 1971 to 83.1% in 1980, so the pop artists gained more space to present themselves to the public. That's one factor in the rise of trot music in the 70s. The other was the young generation born around the time of liberation in 1945. Even though they debuted in the 60s they have since become trot icons.

Since 1966, Munhwa Broadcasting Corporation has hosted a popular variety show entitled 'MBC Ten Singers Match'; 5 singers each female and male are running in the team competition, and at the end of the show one of them will be chosen the best singer. The program was broadcast on the radio until 1968, then on television. It was renamed 'MBC Song Festival' in 2005 and is still held today at the end of the year. Whether the choice of some singers was always fair, is another matter. In the 70s, mainly trot singers appeared in the show, but in the 80s, some ballad singers attended partially, and not until the 90s belonged trot singers to the minority of participants. This can be meaningful evidence that showed the popularity of trot in the 70s. A research sums up 59 songs that were presented in a weekly music program on TV as well as in the aforementioned festival in the 70s, also shows the same result. But trot was no longer the only popular music genre in the 70s. With the proliferation of mass media, contemporary folk music from the United States slowly found its audience as well as performers, who led since the 80s one of the mainstreams of popular music in South Korea. From the late 1960s to the mid-'70s, two singers took trot's stage: Nam Jin and Na Hun-a. They were indeed the first pop idols in South Korea. The rivalry of both was so awesome that predominantly female fans were formed on two fronts. Nam Jin was the first to hold his own concert in 1971 in Korean popular music history, which was then called 'recital' - actually a term for classical music rather than popular music. From the 80s, while Nam Jin could barely release hit songs like before, Na Hun-a released hit songs up to the 2000s, and his fans can still look forward to his sold-out concert in 2019. The two have very different vocal styles. Nam Jin often sang in a lilting mood. Some of his hit songs are rhythmically 'unorthodox' for trot, e.g. "Darling, Please Don't Change" sounds like mimetic rock and roll. Na Hun-a, on the other hand, sang throughout in 'orthodox' style for trot, often using the extended vibrato with wonderful Kkeokk-ki technique. Na's big advantage, of course, was that he was one of the few trot singers-songwriters to write songs exactly according to his style. Their representative hit songs in the '60s–'70s are: :Hit trot songs of Nam Jin

• "Heartbreakingly" (가슴 아프게, 1967)
• "Because Mind Is Good" (마음이 고와야지, 1967)
• "Love Me Once Again" (미워도 다시 한번, 1968)
• "With You" (님과 함께, 1972)
• "Darling, Please Don't Change" (그대여 변치 마오, 1973)
• "If I Had A Lover" (나에게 애인이 있다면, 1973) :Hit trot songs of Na Hun-a
• "Love Is A Seed Of Tears" (사랑은 눈물의 씨앗, 1968)
• "I Wanna Live In Gangchon" (강촌에 살고 싶네, 1969)
• "Woman At The Beach" (해변의 여인, 1971)
• "Hometown Station" (고향역, 1972)
• "Turning Waterwell" (물레방아 도는데, 1973)
• "Rusted Railroad" (녹슬은 기차길, 1976) In the second half of the 1970s, some singers appeared who were not trot familiar, but just with trot songs were popular. Among them, Kim Hun was successful with "Leaving Me Behind, Arirang" (, 1975), Cho Yong-pil with "Come Back To Busan Harbor" (, 1975), Choi Heon with "Leaves Of Paulownia" (, 1976), Song Dae-gwan with "Suddenly, Sunny Day Comes" (, 1976), Yun Su-il with "But Never Want To Love" (, 1977) and others. Most of them had previously engaged in a rock band - at that time, such band was called 'group sounds', based on the Japanese model. Some critics sometimes refer to the music of these artists as 'Trot-go-go' or 'rocker's Ppong'. Called 'Trot-go-go' because go-go had primarily been introduced and popularized as dance music in the 1970s in Korea, and at the same time, many so-called Go-go night dance clubs opened in Seoul, where the above-mentioned singers with their group sounds worked. Called 'rocker's Ppong' because group sounds as a rock band funnily enough performed Ppongjjak. After all, Trot-go-go has contributed to the enrichment of trot by combining style, which is based on the traditional duple or quadruple metre scheme, with the syncopation elements of dance music.

Cho Yong-pil's "Come Back To Busan Harbor" was noteworthy in that it suddenly made him a star from a hitherto unknown musician. The popularity of this song could be explained by the political context because the visit of the living in Japan Koreans who belonged to the pro North Korea association 'Jochongnyeon', just in 1975 was allowed: the brothers returned from abroad back to Busan - that's what the song screamed! In fact, the song itself became so popular later to make the Japanese enka singers aware of this song - several cover versions of enka singers are on YouTube. Meanwhile, after the success of this song, Cho did not seriously himself concern with trot music but instead turned to his actual musical domain alternative rock and pop ballads. Cho soon got into difficulty. In 1975, a 'marijuana scandal' occurred; 18 popular artists - mostly singers from group sounds including Cho and Shin Jung-hyeon - were rebuked for cannabis consumption and banished from public and private broadcastings several years.

1980s: Challenges

The growing economic growth of South Korea has become noticeable everywhere in the 1980s. The young generation, called baby boomers in South Korea as well as in other countries, was coming of age. The Baby boomer cohort, born between 1955 and 1963, is the largest population in South Korea. Accordingly, the number of students in colleges up to 1990 has increased dramatically more than seven times since 1970. The increased number of students boosted on the one hand the formation of student subculture, on the other hand, the young generation faced the cultural cleavage between the desire for change and the conservative establishment and tried to adapt to the changing times. Popular music has also undergone this change and took up the challenge. Beginning at the end of the 70s, the young artists tried contemporary folk songs and pop ballads and rock genres based on the taste of the Koreans. Music halls and nightclubs offered singers with the acoustic guitar as well as group sounds to perform their works. Precisely by their subculture, even in outward appearances such as acoustic guitar, long hair, jeans, and the like, they could feel differentiated from the elder generation. It existed to provide newcomers the opportunity to meet and present their work. Two prestigious song festivals were hosted by MBC TV annually in the late 1970s, which now are not held anymore: 'College Song Festival' (1977-2012) and 'Riverside Song Festival' (1979-2001). In the 60s and 70s, the US Army clubs were the springboard from which many artists stepped forward. In the 80s, the song festivals assumed such a role. Well, trot had a hard time with this uplifting music of the baby boomers. Trot was able to hold its own still in the 80s. The popularity of cassettes proved very important for the genre and helped bring about the localization of trot music. It also helped in the invention of the sound of trot medley, which is now emblematic of contemporary Korean trot music. In 1984, a medley album "Couples-only Party" (), consisting of 21 well-known trot songs was released. It was a compilation of separated recorded songs of a female and a male singer in alternating, but not in duet, and their voice was enhanced by the acoustic echo. After the extraordinary success of the first album, they recorded 4 more "Couples-only Party" cassette albums next year also with success. The five "Couples-only Party" albums contain a total of 110 trot songs. As a result, many musicians flooded the music business with about 50 albums titled 'Couples-only'. A few years later, another female singer Mun Hee-ok () succeeded also with a trot medley album "Disco Medley In Eight Dialects" (, 1987). Anyway, the female singer Joo Hyun-mi was discovered - the male partner Kim Jun-gyu () was actually not a professional singer, but a composer and producer. Previously, Joo Hyun-mi had participated as a vocalist of a student band at the 'Riverside Song Festival' (1981) and won the participation prize. The success of "Couples-only Party" made her debut with her own song "Rainy Yeongdong Bridge" () in 1985. This debut song brought her as trot singer countrywide fame, Joo released four albums in 1985 as well as 1986 with moderate success. The 9th album "Sinsa-dong And The Man" () in 1988 earned her 'Song of the Year Award' of KBS and MBC, the most important awards at that time in South Korea. Her singing style of this song differed from the conventional trot in that the tempo was rhythmically fast in diatonic scale: this may be influenced by the medley style. Critics call it a semi-trot. The lyrics of her songs like "Sinsa-dong And The Man", "Tears Blues" (, 1986), "Unrequited Love" (, 1989), evoked a certain milieu of hostess clubs. A famous entertainment district in Seoul was Sinsa-dong, which was usually called 'Yeongdong' in the 1980s and today 'Gangnam District' in great order. It may have helped to call trot 'Seongin-gayo', literally adult music.

In the 80s, also two female singers, Kim Soo-hee and Sim Soo-bong enlivened the sinking popularity of trot music. The two began their music career in the US Army club: Kim sang as a vocalist of a band 'Black Cats' and Sim worked as a drummer of a band 'Nonstop'. They are both singers and songwriters. Sim Soo-bong debuted in 'College Song Festival' in 1978 with "The Man Back Then" (). It was very rare for a singer to participate in the college festival with a trot song. Although she got no prize, the song became a big hit the next year. Like the success of "Come Back To Busan Harbor", so also the hit peaking of "The Man Back Then" probably has to do with the political incident back then. The song as well as its singer drew special attention to themselves because Sim was present at the assassination of President Park in 1979. But she herself suffered from the psychic trauma. Her next hit song was "Men are Ships, Women are Harbors" (, 1984). Otherwise, she brought little hit songs.

Kim Soo-hee's career began in 1976 when she recorded her first album "Too Much" (). After the unsuccessful debut song, she appeared as a vocalist for a band in the US Army club. "A Yoke" (, 1983), "A Southbound Train" (, 1987) and "Sad Love" (, 1991) were breakthroughs in her career. "A Yoke" garnered above all sympathetic acceptance from those women who engaged in bars and clubs because its lyric reflected images of their quotidian hardships and solace. The imagery of this song was similar to that in Joo Hyun-mi's songs "Rainy Yeongdong Bridge" and "Sinsa-dong And The Man". "A Southbound Train" was popular at the time especially as a fight song of the professional baseball team then Haitai Tigers, comparable to "Busan Seagulls" (, 1982) of Lotte Giants - the trot song "Busan Seagulls" was a one-hit wonder by Moon Seong-jae (). In addition, Kim Soo-hee considered "Sad Love" her favorite song.

In 1985, a trot music program 'Golden Oldies' (), literally means 'music stage', launched by KBS TV. It accomplished a steady rapprochement to trot's listeners till this day.

1990s: Decline in popularity

In the late 1990s, Epaksa made an extravagant attempt, calling his music 'techno-trot', a mixture of rapping, techno and dance.

1993 was a time pop music in its heyday with famous Seo Taiji and Boys. At that time, there was a unique event, "The World Is a Wonderful World", a trot song sung by expressionless Shin Shin-ae while dancing the so-called "Lee Pan-sa-pan", gained popularity and create Shin Shin-ae craze. It peaked into 3rd and 4th rank in South Korean Music Chart.

"The World Is a Wonderful World", sung by Shin Shin-ae, is a mixture of two songs released in the 1930s. Basically, the lyrics of "The World Is a Wonderful World" sung by Kim Jung-gu in 1939, but the lyrics of "Anchhwa Storm" sung by Kim Jung-gu in 1938 have also been partially modified. In the second verse of "Anchhwa Storm", "The old man's topknot twisted and his wife's shoes ran away," was transformed into "The old man's topknot twisted and the old woman's shoes ran away."

2000s–2010s: Revival

• Young trot singers in their twenties to thirties appeared. Male singers include Lim Young-woong (), Young Tak (), Lee Chan-won(), (), Jeong Dong-won(), Shin Yu(), Chun Jae-won(), Jang Minho(), and Kim Hee-jae(). Female singers include Jang Yoon-jeong(), Hong Jin-young(), Yoon Soo-hyun(), Song Ga-in(), Jung Mi-ae(), Hong Ja(), Jung Da-kyung(), Kim Na-hee(), Kang Hye-yeon(), Shin Mi-rae(), Yoyomi(), and Gong So-won().
• Singers who have been unknown for decades have seen the light (typically there is Jin Seong()).
• A retro wind blew in the trot field. Legendary singers Joo Hyun-mi(), Haeeunlee(First 'National sister')(), Na Hoon-a(Emperor of Trot)(), Lee Mi-ja(Queen of Elysees)(), Kim Yon-ja(Queen of Trot)(), Shim Su-bong() and Nam Jin() are drawing attention again.

Popular songs of 2000s~2010s

• 《Flower of Passion》- Kim Soo-hee (2000) (), 《Nest》- Nam Jin (2000) (), 《Love Letter》- Joo Hyun-mi (2000) (), 《Does anyone love you》- Tae Jin-ah (2000) (), 《A Woman Living Alone》- Lee Hyeri (2000) (), 《Lonely Woman》- Jo Seung-gu (2000) ().
• 《Finding the Stars in the Sky》- Yoo Jina (2001) (), 《From Friends to Lovers》- Hyunsook (2001) (), 《You're really good》-Tae Jin-ah (2001) (), 《Be good when you are》- Oh Seung-geun (2001) (), 《Because of You》- Bae Il-ho (2001) (), 《Jaokah》- Park Sang-cheol (2001) ().
• 《Love is not a joke》- Tae Jin-ah (2002) (), 《Captive of Love》- Oh Eunjoo (2002) (), 《My brother is doing well》 - Hyunsook (2002) (), 《Beautiful and Ugly Bird》- Hyun-cheol (2002) (), 《You More Beautiful than Flowers》- Bae Ilho (2002) ().
• 《You Can't Leave》- Kim Sang-bae (2003) (), 《The Trendy》- Song Dae-kwan (2003) (), 《Bye Bye!》- Soh Myeong (2003) (), 《You are my man》- Han Hye-jin (2003) (), 《The Rope of Love》- Kim Yong-Im (2003) ().
• 《Glass Shoes》- Kim Hye-yeon (2004) (), 《Dancing Tambourine》- Hyun-sook(2004) (), 《While Living》- Lee Tae-ho (2004) (), 《Chunjaya》- Seol Un-do (2004) (), 《O My!》- Jang Yoon-jeong (2004) (), 《I want to try love once》- Ha Dong-jin (2004) ().
• 《Zzanzzara》- Jang Yoon-jeong (2005) (), 《Broken Wall Clock》- Na Hoon-a (2005) (), 《By chance》- Woo Yeo-ni (2005) (), 《Honey(Jagiya)》 - Park Joo-hee (2005) (), 《Unconditionally》- Park Sang-cheol (2005) ().
• 《Why! love》- Joo Hyun-mi (2006) (), 《If》- Joh hang-jo (2006) (), 《The Unusual Person》-Choi Yu-na (2006) (), 《Madam》- Tae Jin-ah (2006) (), 《Later, later》- Jang Yoon-jeong (2006) (), 《Gondre Mandre》- Park Hyun-bin (2006) ().
• 《Throwing a vote for love》 - Hyun Sook (2007) (), 《Falls》- Seo Ju-kyung (2007) (), 《The Rumored Love》- Kim Hye-yeon (2007) (), 《Hwang Ji-nyi》 - Park Sang-cheol (2007) (), 《Only Trust Your Brother》 - Park Hyun-bin (2007) (), 《Shrewd》- Baek Su-jeong (2007) ().
• 《Love You》- Joo Hyun-mi, Cho PD (2008) (), 《Please be patient》 - Kim Hye-yeon (2008) (), 《You Are My Love》 - Hyun Sook (2008) (), 《Shabang Shabang》 - Park Hyunbin (2008) (), 《At Andong Station》- Jin Seong (2008) (), 《The Sleeping Princess》- Shin Yu (2008) (), 《Clock Hands》- Shin Yu (2008) (), 《A Millennial》- Yu Jin-pyo (2008) ().
• 《That's Right》- Sung Jin-woo (2009) (), 《ZZarazazza》- Joo Hyun-mi, Seo Hyun (2009) (), 《Lies》- Joh Hang-jo (2009) (), 《Love Battery》- Hong Jin-young (2009) (), 《No Catch》- Moon Yeon-joo (2009) (), 《Red Pepper》 - Yu Ji-na (2009) (), 《A Sincere Heart》 - Geum Jan-di (2009) ()

Contemporary political use of trot music

An article published in the Chosun Ilbo in 2010 reported the government's use of trot music as a propaganda tool against North Korea. Over 184 songs from artists such as Na Hun-a, Jang Yoon-jeong and Park Hyun-bin, were broadcast through FM radio programs targeting North Korean soldiers.

2020s: Resurgent

In recent years, trot, a genre traditionally associated with older generations in Korea, has experienced a significant resurgence, gaining widespread popularity among younger audiences and evolving within the broader music industry. The TV Chosun show Mr. Trot has played a key role in revitalizing trot and introducing it to younger audiences. Stars like Lim Young-woong, who surpassed 10 billion streams on Melon and won two grand prizes at the 2022 Melon Music Awards, have helped bring the genre into the mainstream. Major K-pop companies, like SM Entertainment, are now blending trot with K-pop, as seen in the debut of groups like Mytro, aiming to appeal to both domestic and international audiences.

Notes

References

References

1. Lie, John. (2014). "K-Pop: Popular Music, Cultural Amnesia, and Economic Innovation in South Korea". University of California Press.
2. Sung, So-Young. (2015-02-02). "Young singers are hot to 'trot'".
3. (2000-11-10). "[북한 문화 산책] 2. 북에도 '뽕짝'은 있다". [[JoongAng Ilbo]].
4. (2018-04-27). "[김문성의 盤세기]분단의 최대 희생곡 '조선팔경가'… 남북 정치 현실 따라 가사 난도질". [[The Dong-a Ilbo]].
5. Choi Cheok-ho (2001): "So-called People music in North Korea", pp. 64-71. [http://hri.co.kr/upload/publication/UER200103_09.pdf PDF] (in Korean) (최척호: "북한의 음악: 대중가요", ''통일경제'', 2001 (5·6).
6. Unification Ministry: [http://nkinfo.unikorea.go.kr/nkp/overview/nkOverview.do?sumryMenuId=CL410 Music in North Korea] (in Korean).
7. (2016-11-12). "[클로즈업 북한] 남북이 함께 부르는 노래…'계몽기 가요'". [[Korean Broadcasting System]].
8. Lee Yeong-mi (revised 2013): "Trot" in: [http://encykorea.aks.ac.kr/Contents/Index?contents_id=E0066860 Encyclopedia of Korean Culture] via internet. (in Korean) (이영미: "트로트", 한국민족문화대백과사전).
9. [https://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/search?q=T%E2%80%99%C5%ADrot%E2%80%99%C5%AD&searchBtn=Search&isQuickSearch=true Oxford Grove Music Online] under keyword ''''Korea'''' edited by Robert C. Provine, Okon Hwang and Keith Howard.
10. Also some of K-pop's song uses the pentatonic scale, see Lee Sang-uk (2016): "The Continuation and Variation of K-pop Musical Styles", in: ''Sungshin Women's Uni. Journal of Humanities'' 34, p. 362. (in Korean) (이상욱: "K-pop 음악적 성향의 지속과 변이", ''성신여대 인문과학연구'' 제34집, pp. 353-394 [https://kiss.kstudy.com/journal/journal-sub-view.asp?key1=29916&key2=2316&selYEAR=2016&selVOL1=34&selNUM1=0 ''KISS'']).
11. Lee Jun-hee (2015): "Extension of Trot in 1940-1950 years", ''Journal of the Asian Music'' 38, pp. 75-94. [http://s-space.snu.ac.kr/bitstream/10371/98915/1/vol38_75.pdf PDF] (in Korean) (이준희: "1940-50년대 트로트의 확장: 장조화의 도입과 변용", ''동양음악'' 제38집). ref b: p. 84-85.
12. About the term 'Han' see Daniel Tudor (2012): "Korea: The Impossible Country", Boston, p. 121.
13. Jang So-won (2015): "Text analysis of writing style in Korean popular music,” ''Text linguistics'' 39, pp. 283-311. (in Korean) (장소원: "한국 대중가요 가사의 문체 분석", ''텍스트언어학'' 39호).
14. She sings directly in a simple studio exclusively for YouTube viewer. [https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCEDXalKckJ-JqVCjusmHm3g/videos Ju Hyeon-mi channel] (YouTube).
15. Chang Yu-jeong. (August 2016). "Made in Korea: Studies in Popular Music". Routledge.
16. Kim Byeong-seon (1990): "Studies on Changa in the time of Enlightenment in Korea", (Doctoral dissertation, Jeonnam University). Retrieved from [http://www.riss.kr/search/detail/DetailView.do?p_mat_type=be54d9b8bc7cdb09&control_no=14499303f3e6e662 RISS]. (in Korean) (김병선: "한국 개화기 창가 연구", 전남대학교 박사학위논문).
17. Son Min-jung. (Winter–Spring 2006). "Regulating and Negotiating in T'urot'u, a Korean Popular Song Style". Asian Music.
18. Son Min-jung. (May 2004). "The Politics of the Traditional Korean Popular Song Style T'ŭrot'ŭ". Doctoral dissertation, University of Texas at Austin.
19. Lee Ju-won (June 2015): "A Comparative Study of Korean and Japanese Popular Music - With a Focus on 1945-1950", ''Japanese Studies'' Vol. 64, pp. 75－98, [https://kiss.kstudy.com/thesis/thesis-view.asp?key=3461606 KISS]. (in Korean) (이주원: "한・일 양국의 대중가요 비교고찰: 1945-1950년을 중심으로", ''일본연구'' 제64호). ref a: p. 75, ref b: p. 88.
20. Bak Cheol-hee (revised 1995): "Siga" in: [http://encykorea.aks.ac.kr/Contents/Item/E0032294 Encyclopedia of Korean Culture] (in Korean). (박철희: "시가", 한국민족문화대백과사전).
21. Full description about the Korean traditional Minyo and Sin-minyo see Kwon Do-hee (December 2014): "Industrial Folksong and the Popular Music in Modern Era", ''Journal of the Asian Music'' 36, pp. 167-223. [http://s-space.snu.ac.kr/bitstream/10371/95683/1/07%20%EA%B6%8C%EB%8F%84%ED%9D%AC.pdf PDF] available. (in Korean) (권도희: 근대기 상업민요와 대중음악, ''동양음악'' 제36집).
22. Lee Yeong-mi (October 2006): "Inherit of traditional music", a paper presented at 'The 3rd World Congress of Korean Studies' [http://congress.aks.ac.kr/korean/viewforum.php?f=114&topicdays=0&sort=0&order=1&sort2=0&order2=1&start=99&sid=bc04fb380e73081de94b5e0667cda8c6 PDF] available. (in Korean) (이영미: "전통가요 계승 대중가요의 흐름과 양상들").
23. The detailed backgrounds as well as relevant bibliography about the so-called 'Japanese-tinged controversy' see Jang Yu-jeong (2008): "Controversy about Korean Trot". [https://www.kci.go.kr/kciportal/ci/sereArticleSearch/ciSereArtiView.kci?sereArticleSearchBean.artiId=ART001475220 PDF] available (in Korean) (장유정: "한국 트로트 논쟁의 일고찰", ''대중서사연구'' 20호, pp. 47-72).
24. Complete list of prohibited songs see Mun Ok-bae (October 2008): "Study about music control of government after the liberation', in: ''Journal of the Science and Practice Music'', Vol. 22, pp. 30-33. [http://mrc.hanyang.ac.kr/jspm/articles/jspm-2008-22/ PDF] available. (in Korean) (문옥배: "해방 이후 정부의 음악통제 연구", ''음악논단'', 22집).
25. Wang Seong-sang (2015): "Forbidden songs", pp. 80-81. [http://www.archives.go.kr/next/common/archivedata/render.do?filePath=2F757046696c652F70616c67616e2F313434343230393530363933302e706466 PDF] available. (in Korean) (왕성상: "금지곡들", ''기록인IN'' No. 32, 76-83).
26. Pak Gloria L (2006): "On the Mimetic Faculty: A Critical Study of the 1984 Ppongtchak Debate and Post-Colonial Mimesis", in: Korean Pop Music: Riding the Wave, edited by Keith Howard, pp. 62-71, Folkestone, Kent: Global Oriental.
27. The course of debate is briefly summarized in the article (pp. 48-49) by Son Min-jung (October 2013): "Self and Others in the Studies of Korean Popular Music: a Case Study of T'ŭrot'ŭ", ''The Journal of Aesthetics and Science of Art'', Vol. 39 (1), pp. 41-68. [http://www.ksasa.org/aesthetics/list.php?journal_name=20140312AofMjXJovS PDF] available. (in Korean) (손민정: "대중음악연구에 있어서 주체와 타자의 정치학 - 트로트 연구의 사례를 중심으로", ''미학예술학연구'' 39집).
28. A Korean classical musician [[Hwang Byungki. Hwang Byeong-gi]] wrote the article "누가 뽕짝을 우리 것이라 하는가?" in the monthly music magazine ''The Eumak Dong-a'' ({{Korean
29. About 'Japanese cultural suppression policy' see Mark E. Caprio (2009): "Japanese Assimilation Policies in Colonial Korea, 1910-1945", Seattle, University of Washington Press.
30. Bak Yong-gu (1984-11-29): "Ppongjjak is oddments of age", ''Hanguk Ilbo'', (박용구: "뽕짝은 시대의 찌꺼기이다", 한국일보).
31. Jo Un-pa (1984-12-13): "There are many contradictions when judging songs as forbidden", ''Hanguk Ilbo'', (조운파: "금지곡 판정 모순 많다", 한국일보).
32. In addition to the noted critics, Kim Ji-pyeong (김지평), Park Chun-seok, Seo U-seok (서우석), Lee Geon-yong (이건용) were also involved in the debate.
33. Information about the songs not recorded in the 1910s see (in Korean) [https://chf.or.kr/c2/sub2_2.jsp?thisPage=1&searchField=&searchText=&brdType=R&bbIdx=103501 Korean Cultural Heritage Foundation].
34. [http://www.sparchive.co.kr/v2/sub/search/music.php?at_opt=&at=view&content=%ED%95%99%EB%8F%84%EA%B0%80&id=26407 Korean Records Archives] (in Korean).
35. See [[:ja:多梅稚]]
36. Min Gyeong-chan (1998): "The Revolutionary Song of N. Korea and Japanese Songs", ''The Society for Korean Historico-Musicology'' Vol. 20, p. 125-157. (in Korean) (민경찬: "북한의 혁명가요와 일본의 노래", ''한국음악사학보'' 20호).
37. Lee Eun-jin (December 2015): "Channelling Desires and Rebuilding Sensibilities Modern Desires of Japanese Colonial Era Represented in Comic Songs of the 1930s", ''Journal of Ewha Music Research Institute'' vol. 19 (3), pp. 1-37. [http://cms.ewha.ac.kr/user/indexSub.action?codyMenuSeq=6004770&siteId=musicie&menuUIType=sub&dum=dum&boardId=6028808&page=1&command=view&boardSeq=6231836&year=2019&month=6&startDate=&endDate= PDF] available. (in Korean) (이은진: 욕망의 여과와 감각의 재구성: 1930년대 만요로 살펴본 식민지 도시인의 욕망, ''이화음악논집'' 제19집 3호).
38. [http://www.sparchive.co.kr/v2/sub/search/music.php?at=view&id=28156 Korean Records Archives] (in Korean).
39. (2016). "A study on the traditionalism of "trot" – Focused on Yi Nanyŏng's "Tears of Mokp'o"". Journal of Marine and Island Cultures.
40. Golden Oldies]]' ({{Korean
41. Lee Seong-min (July 2014): [https://www.much.go.kr/uss/ion/nwsRead/NewsInfoDetailInqire.do?newsId=NEWS_000000000002391 The Era of voice], a paper presented at the 'Conference Modern History from the view of broadcasting'. [https://www.much.go.kr/online_exhi/av/pdf/pdf_file_lsm.pdf PDF] available. (in Korean) (이성민: "소리의 시대 현대적 일상의 시작").
42. [http://theme.archives.go.kr/next/pages/new_newsletter/2015/05/sub1.html National Archive Newsletter]: Summary of the broadcasts (in Korean).
43. [https://www.afnpacific.net/Local-Stations/Daegu/ AFN via internet]. An extensive study about the early AFKN see Jerry L. Priscaro (August 1962): "An Historical Study of the American Forces Korea Network and Its Broadcast Programming: 1957-1962", (Master's thesis, Boston University). Retrieved from [https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/142052415.pdf PDF].
44. [https://www.army.mil/article/176551/armed_forces_network_yongsan_end_of_an_era History of AFKN]
45. (30 Apr 2015). "Tony's Web - Spring Days Are Passing (봄날은 간다) - The Old Song".
46. Detailed documentation and testimony of the 'US Army Shows' see [http://www.newsmaker.or.kr/news/articleList.html?page=1&total=2&sc_section_code=&sc_sub_section_code=&sc_serial_code=&sc_area=A&sc_level=&sc_article_type=&sc_view_level=&sc_sdate=&sc_edate=&sc_serial_number=&sc_word=%B9%CC8%B1%BA%BC%EE+60%B3%E2%BB%E7%2C+%B1%D7+%B1%E2%B7%CF%B0%FA+%C1%F5%BE%F0&view_type= two articles] of Bak Seong-seo (in Korean).
47. [https://8tharmy.korea.army.mil/site/about/history.asp History of 8th United States Army].
48. [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DDA0084gZWc Marilyn's performance] (YouTube).
49. [http://www.pa.go.kr/portal/contents/stroll/special/view.do?bd_seq=7#infoRecord1 Presidential Archives] (Photo with President [[Syngman Rhee]]).
50. [https://www.stripes.com/news/nat-king-cole-feels-close-to-the-audience-1.12657 Interview] with ''Stars and Stripes'' (1963).
51. About the details of US Army club see [http://www.bpcf.or.kr/ShareEtc/download.asp?Filepath=Fboard_19&Filename=3%ED%9A%8C%EC%B0%A8%5F2015%EB%B6%80%ED%8F%89%EB%AC%B8%ED%99%94%ED%8F%AC%EB%9F%BC%5F%EC%9E%90%EB%A3%8C%EC%A7%91%2Epdf PDF] of Bupyeong City Forum (in Korean).
52. Bae Sun-tak (February 2018): [http://ksoundlab.com/xe/sound_music100/8201 Popular Music in the 1950s], ''Pop Music SOUND'' No. 3 (in Korean).
53. Kim Yeong-ju (2002): "Character and development process of the Korean youth popular music culture: focusing on popular music since 1970", (Doctoral dissertation, Chungnam University), p. 69-70. Retrieved from [http://www.riss.kr/search/detail/DetailView.do?p_mat_type=be54d9b8bc7cdb09&control_no=9c1747743755d76c RISS]. (in Korean) (김영주: "한국 청년 대중음악문화의 전개과정과 그 특성", 박사학위논문, 충남대학교).
54. [https://flashbak.com/night-far-east-club-seoul-south-korea-1956-390627/ Photo Gallery] of the 8th US army club in the 1950s, taken by then US soldier Jack Tobin; The Kim Sisters on the last photo.
55. Jang Yu-jeong (2013): "Process and development of modern pop songs", in: Form for Korean Contemporary History, ([http://kiss.kstudy.com/thesis/thesis-view.asp?key=3321482 ''KISS'']) p. 85. (in Korean) (장유정: "근대 대중가요의 형성 및 전개 과정", pp. 76-87).
56. Lee So-yeong (December 2007): "The Exoticism of Korean Popular Music in the 1950s", [http://www.dbpia.co.kr/journal/articleDetail?nodeId=NODE00982461 DBpia]. (in Korean) (이소영: "1950년대 한국 대중음악의 이국성", ''대중서사연구'' 18호, pp. 35-71).
57. Jang Yu-jeong (December 2008), "Study of exotic elements of popular music in the 1950s", ''Study of oral literature'' Vol. 27 (Dec.), pp. 311-339. (in Korean) (장유정: "1950년대 대중가요의 이국성 고찰", ''구비문학연구'' 27권 12월호) [http://kiss.kstudy.com/journal/journal-sub-view.asp?key1=30597&key2=1124&selYEAR=2008&selVOL1=27&selNUM1=0 KISS PDF] available.
58. Jang Yu-jeong (August 2015): "Changes of Korean pop music from the perspective of the lyrics", in: Essays in celebration of the 70th anniversary of Liberation Day, p. 142. (in Korean) (장유정: "불러보자 ‘귀국선', 춤춰보자 ‘강남스타일': 가사로 본 한국 대중가요의 변천", in: 우리의 삶, 우리말에 담다, pp. 133-152).
59. "A Pastoral Song" was composed by Son Seok-u ({{Korean
60. "A Pastoral Song: 네이버 영어사전".
61. Bae Ho's biography (documented 2017) see Archives of Seoul Future Heritage [https://futureheritage.seoul.go.kr/web/archive/dataPdfView.do?pdfId=503 PDF] available (in Korean).
62. [http://nlcollection.nl.go.kr/front/detail/detail2.do?recKey=CO0000003772&categoryId=CA0000000026&chkApp=&sub_class=01%EC%9B%90%EA%B3%A1%20%EC%96%B4%EB%96%BB%EA%B2%8C%20%EC%B0%BE%EC%95%98%EB%82%98&categoryName=%EA%B5%AD%EB%AF%BC%EA%B0%80%EC%9A%94%EC%9B%90%EA%B3%A1%EC%9D%84%EC%B0%BE%EC%95%84%EC%84%9C&conRows=10&conStart=0&pageNo=1&perPage=10&flgBack=y Digital collections] of National Library of Korea (in Korean).
63. Bae Seong-geon, Park Sang-bum, Bae Myung-jin (2017): "A Comparative Voice Analysis between Original Singer and Mimic Singer in the Speech Signal Processing", in: ''International Journal of Applied Engineering Research'', Vol. 12, No. 16 pp. 6294-6299.
64. (September 2000). "Cultural identity and cultural policy in South Korea". The International Journal of Cultural Policy.
65. Chae Baek, Choi Chang-sik, Gang Seung-hwa, Heo Yun-cheol (December 2018년): "Diffusion of television, wax and wane of community and family bond", ''Communication Theories'' Vol. 14 (4), pp. 146-147 [http://www.dbpia.co.kr/journal/articleDetail?nodeId=NODE07587630&language=ko_KR DBPia]. (in Korean) (채백, 최창식, 강승화, 허윤철: TV의 보급 확대와 공동체의 변화, ''커뮤니케이션 이론'', 14권 4호).
66. [http://ehistory.go.kr/page/view/movie.jsp?gbn=DK&mediadtl=34377&mediaid=20080600&quality=W&srcgbn=KV eFilm History] (show cut in 1970).
67. [http://www.imbc.com/broad/tv/ent/event/2018mbc/gayo/ 2018 MBC Song Festival].
68. [http://news.donga.com/List/Columnhttp/3/all/20051219/8258140/1 Donga News] (2005-12-19) reported the canceled festival (in Korean).
69. Jang Yu-jeong (February 2012): "The Characteristics of Korean popular song' lyrics in the 1970-1980s - focused on hit songs of public TV 1970-80", ''The Research of the Performance Art and Culture'' Vol. 24, pp. 79-113. [http://kiss.kstudy.com/thesis/thesis-view.asp?key=3052547 KISS] PDF available. (in Korean) (장유정: "1970-80년대 한국 대중가요 가사의 특징 -공중파 방송 인기곡을 중심으로", ''공연문화연구'' 24권). ref a: pp. 83-84, ref b: p. 99.
70. The detailed rivalry story of both singers see [http://newsmaker.or.kr/news/articleList.html?page=1&total=6&sc_section_code=&sc_sub_section_code=&sc_serial_code=&sc_area=A&sc_level=&sc_article_type=&sc_view_level=&sc_sdate=&sc_edate=&sc_serial_number=&sc_word=%B3%B2%C1%F8+vs+%B3%AA%C8%C6%BE%C6&view_type= 6 articles] of Bak Seong-seo (in Korean).
71. [http://english.chosun.com/site/data/html_dir/2019/03/21/2019032101013.html English Chosun Ilbo] (2019-3-21): Na Hun-a proves enduring popularity as concerts sell out.
72. (13 February 2012). "가슴 아프게 (Heartbreakingly) – Nam Jin (남 진)".
73. The song was originally released by the late Kim Hae-il in 1969 with the title "Come Back To Chungmu Harbor". Cho's version was an adaption, released in 1972 without success and in 1975 with success. Later, the lyricist and composer Hwang Seon-u was reported for plagiarism of the lyrics of Kim Hae-il and fined in 2006 ([http://www.law.go.kr/precInfoP.do?precSeq=70349 서울서부지법 2006. 3. 17]).
74. [http://theme.archives.go.kr/next/monthly/viewMain.do?year=2008&month=09 National Archives of Korea]: Monthly review, September 1975 (in Korean).
75. [https://www.youtube.com/results?search_query=%E9%87%9C%E5%B1%B1%E6%B8%AF%E3%81%B8%E5%B8%B0 釜山港へ帰] cover of enka singers (YouTube).
76. [http://www.choyongpil.com/hello/article_db/4027 Interview] with Hanguk Ilbo (2013-05-22, in Korean).
77. [http://www.hankookilbo.com/News/Read/201904101668078864 Drug-shadow over the entertainment business] (Hanguk Ilbo, 2019-04-11, in Korean).
78. Bang Ha-nam (February 2011): "Who is the Baby Boomer?", in: ''Monthly Labor Review'', Vol. 71, pp.5-9. [https://www.kli.re.kr/kli/pdicalView.do?key=19&pblctListNo=6893&schPdicalKnd=%EB%85%B8%EB%8F%99%EB%A6%AC%EB%B7%B0&schPblcateDe=&pageUnit=10&searchCnd=all&searchKrwd=&pageIndex=10 PDF] available (in Korean) (방하남: "베이비붐 세대: 그들은 누구인가?", ''노동리뷰'' 제71호).
79. The number of college students, including graduate students was 153,000 (1970), 437,000 (1980), 1,127,000 (1990), 1,894,000 (2000), 2,461,000 (2010). [http://kosis.kr/upsHtml/online/downSrvcFile.do?PUBCODE=AS&SEQ=14&FILE_NAME=AS7034.pdf Statistics Korea] (2015) in: 통계로 본 광복 70년 한국사회의 변화 1 해설편 (in Korean).
80. Kim Ji-seon (January 2011): "1970s Korean youth culture as cultural production layers", ''Research of Korean Studies'' Vol. 2, p. 172. [http://cks.pccu.edu.tw/files/15-1213-44582,c7768-1.php?Lang=zh-tw PDF] available (in Korean) (김지선: "문화 생산계층로서의 1970년대 한국 청년문화에 대한 고찰", 한국학연구논문집, 2).
81. [https://news.joins.com/article/1991349 DongA Ilbo] (1985-04-24) (in Korean).
82. She tells in a [http://md.kbs.co.kr/news/view.do?ncd=2936028 KBS TV interview] (2014-09-24) how the album was recorded and also about her career.
83. [http://www.koreadaily.com/news/read.asp?art_id=1127305 Interview] with ''JungAng Ilbo'' (2010-12-01) (in Korean).
84. (23 Aug 2011). "너무합니다 (Too Much) – Kim Soo Hee (김수희)".
85. [https://monthly.chosun.com/client/news/viw.asp?ctcd=&nNewsNumb=200510100050 Interview] with ''Monthly Chosun Magazine'' (October 2005) (in Korean).
86. [http://program.kbs.co.kr/1tv/enter/gayo/pc/ Gayo-mudae Home page].
87. 윤, 청신. (2019-01-26). "세상은 요지경 신신애는 누구?, 나이 예순 한살, 김수희 권유로 가수 데뷔..KBS2 '가요톱10', MBC 코믹가요 대상".
88. Jang, Yu-jeong. (2022-04-20). "[장유정의 음악 정류장] [25] '세상은 요지경' 속이지만 '웃으며 살자'".
89. The Chosunilbo. "[http://english.chosun.com/site/data/html_dir/2010/12/30/2010123000463.html Trot Music Is S.Korea's Best Propaganda Weapon]". December 30, 2010.
90. Lee, Jung-youn. (October 2, 2024). "Will trot bring a breath of fresh air to K-pop?".