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Timeline of events leading to the American Civil War

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bodystylewidth:20em;
titleEvents leading to the American Civil War
labelstylewidth:33%
image[[File:Oil on Canvas Portrait of Dred Scott (cropped).jpg220px]]
captionDred Scott, an enslaved African American, who unsuccessfully sued for his freedom. The resulting 1857 Supreme Court decision angered Northern anti-slavery forces, escalated tensions, and led to secession and war.
header1General info
data2* Issues of the American Civil War
header3Important events and people
data4* Pennsylvania Society for Abolition of Slavery
  • Origins of the American Civil War
  • Slavery in the United States
  • Abolitionism in the United States |lavel3
  • Northwest Ordinance
  • Fugitive Slave Act of 1793; Cotton gin
  • Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions
  • Gabriel Plot; Vesey Plot
  • Nat Turner's slave rebellion
  • Act Prohibiting Importation of Slaves
  • American Colonization Society
  • Missouri Compromise
  • Tariff of 1828; Nullification Crisis
  • American Anti-Slavery Society; Amistad
  • American and Foreign Anti-Slavery Society
  • Prigg v. Pennsylvania
  • Underground Railroad; Harriet Tubman
  • Texas Annexation; Manifest Destiny
  • Mexican–American War; Wilmot Proviso
  • Nashville Convention
  • Compromise of 1850
  • Fugitive Slave Act of 1850; Uncle Tom's Cabin
  • Kansas–Nebraska Act; Popular Sovereignty
  • Bleeding Kansas; Bleeding Sumner
  • Dred Scott v. Sandford
  • Lincoln–Douglas debates
  • John Brown's raid on Harpers Ferry
  • 1860 United States presidential election
  • William Lloyd Garrison; John Brown (abolitionist); John C. Calhoun; Henry Clay; Jefferson Davis; Stephen A. Douglas; Frederick Douglass; James Henry Hammond; Abraham Lincoln; William H. Seward; Charles Sumner; Daniel Webster
  • Corwin Amendment
  • Star of the West; Battle of Fort Sumter
  • Secession; Confederate States

This timeline of events leading to the American Civil War is a chronologically ordered list of events and issues that historians recognize as origins and causes of the American Civil War. These events are roughly divided into two periods: the first encompasses the gradual build-up over many decades of the numerous social, economic, and political issues that ultimately contributed to the war's outbreak, and the second encompasses the five-month span following the election of Abraham Lincoln as President of the United States in 1860 and culminating in the capture of Fort Sumter in April 1861.

Scholars have identified many different causes for the war, but the most polarizing issue was whether the institution of slavery should be retained and even expanded to other territories or whether it should be contained, which would lead to its ultimate extinction. Since the early colonial period, slavery had played a major role in the socioeconomic system of British America and was widespread in the Thirteen Colonies at the time of the American Declaration of Independence in 1776. During and after the American Revolution, events and statements by politicians and others brought forth differences, tensions and divisions between citizens of the slave states of the Southern United States and citizens of the free states of the Northern United States (including several newly admitted Western states) over the topics of slavery. In the many decades between the Revolutionary War and the Civil War, such divisions became increasingly irreconcilable and contentious.

Events in the 1850s culminated with the election of the anti-slavery Republican Abraham Lincoln as president on November 6, 1860. This provoked the first round of state secession as leaders of the cotton states of the Deep South were unwilling to remain in what they perceived as a second-class political status, with their way of life now threatened by the President himself. Initially, seven states seceded: Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Louisiana, Mississippi, South Carolina and Texas. After the Confederates attacked and captured Fort Sumter, President Lincoln called for volunteers to march south and suppress the rebellion. This pushed four other states in the Upper South (Virginia, North Carolina, Tennessee and Arkansas) also to secede, completing the incorporation of the Confederate States of America by July 1861. Their contributions of territory and soldiers to the Confederacy ensured, in retrospect, that the war would be prolonged and bloody.

Colonial period, 1607–1775

American Revolution and Confederation period, 1776–1787

Early Constitutional period, 1787–1811

1812–1849

Compromise of 1850 to the Election of 1860

Election of 1860 to the Battle of Fort Sumter

Further secessions and divisions

; Additional events related to secession and initiation of the war follow; most other events after April 15 are not listed.

Several small skirmishes and battles as well as bloody riots in St. Louis and Baltimore took place in the early months of the war. The Battle of First Bull Run or Battle of First Manassas, the first major battle of the war, occurred on July 21, 1861. After that, it became clear that there could be no compromise between the Union and the seceding states and that a long and bloody war could not be avoided. All hope of a settlement short of a catastrophic war was lost.

References

Bibliography

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  • Bowman, John S., ed. The Civil War Almanac. New York: Facts on File, Bison Book Corp., 1982. .
  • Briley, Ronald F. The Study Guide Amistad: A Lasting Legacy, In History Teacher Vol. 31, No. 3 (May 1998), pp. 390–394 in JSTOR
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  • Crowther, Edward R. Abolitionists. pp. 6–7 in Encyclopedia of the American Civil War: A Political, Social, and Military History, edited by David S. Heidler and Jeanne T. Heidler. New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 2000. .
  • Davis, Thomas J. "The New York Slave Conspiracy of 1741 as Black Protest." In Journal of Negro History Vol. 56, No. 1 (January 1971), pp. 17–30 in JSTOR
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References

  1. James M. McPherson, ''Battle Cry of Freedom: The Civil War Era'' (1988), ch. 1–8.
  2. Bowman, John S., ed. ''The Civil War Almanac.'' New York: Facts on File, Bison Book Corp., 1982. {{ISBN. 0-87196-640-9. Chronology: The Approach to War (pp. 12–50) and Chronology: The War Years (pp. 50–269), p. 12.
  3. [[Louis D. Rubin Jr.. Rubin, Louis, D.]] ''Virginia, a History.'' New York, W. W. Norton & Company, Inc, 1977. {{ISBN. 978-0-393-05630-3. p. 9
    1. Retrieved April 13, 2011. pp. 2–3
  5. Higginbotham, A. Leon. (1975). "In the Matter of Color: Race and the American Legal Process: The Colonial Period". Greenwood Press.
  6. McCartney, Martha W. ''A Study of Africans and African Americans on Jamestown Island and at Green Spring, 1619–1803'' (Colonial Williamsburg Foundation, 2003), p. 47.
  7. Wilson, 1872, p. 6.
  8. William McLoughlin, ''Rhode Island, a history'' (1986), [https://books.google.com/books?id=r5Z3UNxHdT0C&dq=rhode+island+slave+trade+1784&pg=PA106 p. 106 online.]
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  10. Russell, John Henderson. [https://books.google.com/books?id=QzB2AAAAMAAJ ''The free Negro in Virginia, 1619–1865''] (1913).
  11. William O. Blake, [https://archive.org/details/historyofslavery00blaka ''History of Slavery and the Slave Trade, Ancient and Modern''] (1861), p. 372.
  12. Ferenc M. Szasz, "The New York Slave Revolt of 1741: A Re-Examination." ''New York History'' (1967): 215–230 [https://www.jstor.org/stable/23162951 in JSTOR.]
  13. Dowdey, 1969, p. 274.
  14. Kars, Marjoleine. (2008). "Disasters, Accidents, and Crises in American History: A Reference Guide to the Nation's Most Catastrophic Events". Facts on File.
  15. Aptheker, Herbert. (1983). "American Negro Slave Revolts". International Publishers.
  16. Thomas J. Davis, "The New York Slave Conspiracy of 1741 as Black Protest". In ''Journal of Negro History'', Vol. 56, No. 1 (January 1971), pp. 17–30 [https://www.jstor.org/stable/2716023 in JSTOR.]
  17. Blake, 1861, p. 178.
  18. James M. McPherson, ''Ordeal By Fire: The Civil War and Reconstruction'' (1982), p. 38 gives the year as 1775.
  19. Kelley, Peter. "Documents that Changed the World: The Declaration of Independence's deleted passage on slavery, 1776". University of Washington.
  20. J. Kevin Graffagnino, "Vermont Attitudes Toward Slavery: The Need for a Closer Look," '' Vermont History'', January 1977, Vol. 45 Issue 1, pp. 31–34.
  21. Blake, 1861, pp. 421–422.
  22. Historians report "in all likelihood Jefferson composed [the law] although the evidence is not conclusive"; John E. Selby and Don Higginbotham, ''The Revolution in Virginia, 1775–1783'' (2007), p. 158.
  23. Blake, 1861, p. 389.
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  25. Bowman, 1982, p. 12, states that in 1780–1804, the Northern states passed laws and their courts issued decisions that in effect prohibited slavery in those states.
  26. Blake, 1861, p. 406.
  27. Wilson, 1872, p. 20.
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  108. Bowman, 1982, pp. 15–16.
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  112. McPherson, 1982, p. 51.
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  115. McPherson, 1982, p. 53.
  116. Wagner, 2009, p. 133.
  117. Wright, John A.. (2002). "Discovering African American St. Louis: a Guide to Historic Sites". Missouri Historical Society Press.
  118. Frederick J. Blue, ''No Taint of Compromise: Crusaders in Antislavery Politics'' (2006), p. 93.
  119. McPherson, 1982, p. 40.
  120. Bowman, 1982, p. 33.
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  128. Maggie Sale, ''The Slumbering Volcano: American slave ship revolts and the production of rebellious masculinity'' (1997), p. 120.
  129. Joseph Nogee, "The Prigg Case and Fugitive Slavery, 1842–1850," ''Journal of Negro History'' Vol. 39, No. 3 (July 1954), pp. 185–205, [https://www.jstor.org/stable/2715841 in JSTOR]
  130. Joseph C. Burke. "What Did the Prigg Decision Really Decide?" ''Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography'', Vol. 93, No. 1 (January 1969), pp. 73–85, [https://www.jstor.org/stable/20090261 in JSTOR.]
  131. Thomas D. Morris, ''Free Men All: The Personal Liberty Laws of the North, 1780–1861'' (1974).
  132. Clarence C. Goen, "Broken churches, broken nation: Regional religion and North-south alienation in Antebellum America." ''Church History'' 52.01 (1983): 21–35. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/3167066 in JSTOR]
  133. Jacqueline Bacon, "'Do you understand your own language?' Revolutionary topoi in the rhetoric of African‐American abolitionists." ''Rhetoric Society Quarterly'' 28.2 (1998): 55–75.
  134. Klein, 1997, p. 31.
  135. Frederick Douglass, ''Narrative of the life of Frederick Douglass, an American slave'' (2000), [http://engl101f15-leblanc.wikispaces.umb.edu/file/view/Narrative%2Bof%2Bthe%2BLife%2Bof%2BFrederick%2BDouglass.pdf/558576689/Narrative%2Bof%2Bthe%2BLife%2Bof%2BFrederick%2BDouglass.pdf online].
  136. Lyon Rathbun, "The debate over annexing Texas and the emergence of Manifest Destiny." ''Rhetoric & Public Affairs'' 4.3 (2001): 459–493, [http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/rhetoric_and_public_affairs/v004/4.3rathbun.html online.]
  137. (4 March 2010). "Texas enters the Union".
  138. McPherson, 1982, p. 59.
  139. Faust, Patricia L. ''DeBow's Review'', in ''Historical Times Illustrated History of the Civil War'', edited by Patricia L. Faust (1986), pp. 212–213.
  140. McPherson, 1982, p. 56.
  141. McPherson, 1982, p. 57.
  142. Eric Foner, "The Wilmot Proviso Revisited." ''Journal of American History'' 56.2 (1969): 262–279, [http://www.ericfoner.com/articles/Wilmot.pdf online]
  143. Wagner, 2009, p. 62.
  144. McPherson, 1982, p. 60.
  145. Bowman, 1982, pp. 34–35.
  146. McPherson, 1982, p. 61.
  147. Bowman, 1982, p. 35.
  148. McPherson, 1982, p. 58.
  149. Richard J. Ellis and Alexis Walker, "Policy Speech in the Nineteenth Century Rhetorical Presidency: The Case of Zachary Taylor's 1849 Tour." ''Presidential Studies Quarterly'' 37.2 (2007): 248–269.
  150. R. Lawrence Hachey, "Jacksonian Democracy and the Wisconsin Constitution." ''Marquette Law Review'' 62 (1978): 485. [http://scholarship.law.marquette.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2106&context=mulr online]
  151. McPherson, 1982, p. 72.
  152. McPherson, 1982, pp. 72–73.
  153. Cardinal Goodwin, ''The establishment of state government in California 1846–1850'' (1916), [https://archive.org/details/establishmentst00goodgoog online.]
  154. [[Ann Petry]]. (2015). "Harriet Tubman: Conductor on the Underground Railroad". Open Road Media.
  155. Long states the number of slaves in the fifteen slave states were 3,204,051. The difference relates to the residence of a few hundred slaves in the Northern states or in the territories.
  156. Robert Chadwell Williams. (2006). "Horace Greeley: Champion of American Freedom". NYU Press.
  157. McPherson, 1982, p. 65.
  158. Bruce Tap, "Compromise of 1850", in William B. Barney, ed., ''The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Civil War'' (2011), pp. 80+.
  159. George L. Sioussat, "Tennessee, the Compromise of 1850, and the Nashville Convention." ''Mississippi Valley Historical Review'' (1915), 2#3 pp: 313–347, [https://www.jstor.org/stable/1886535 in JSTOR.]
  160. Reséndez, Andrés. (2016-04-12). "The Other Slavery: The Uncovered Story of Indian Enslavement in America". HarperCollins.
  161. McPherson, 1982, p. 68.
  162. McPherson, 1982, p. 78.
  163. Nash, Roderick W.. (1961). "William Parker and the Christiana Riot". The Journal of Negro History.
  164. Wagner, 2009, p. 63.
  165. van Frank, Megan. (2010). "Slavery of African-Americans in Early Utah".
  166. David S. Reynolds, ''Mightier than the sword: Uncle Tom's cabin and the battle for America'' (2011)
  167. Frank J. Klingberg, "Harriet Beecher Stowe and Social Reform in England," ''American Historical Review'' (1938), 43#3, pp. 542–552, [https://www.jstor.org/stable/1865615 in JSTOR.]
  168. On the Southern response see Severn Duvall, "Uncle Tom's Cabin: The Sinister Side of the Patriarchy," ''The New England Quarterly'' (1963), 36#1 pp. 3–22, [https://www.jstor.org/stable/363387 in JSTOR.]
  169. Cluskey, ed., 1857, p. 503.
  170. William E. Gienapp, "The Whig Party, the Compromise of 1850, and the Nomination of Winfield Scott." ''Presidential Studies Quarterly'' (1984): 399–415 [https://www.jstor.org/stable/27550101 in JSTOR].
  171. Michael J. Connolly, "'History has rendered its verdict upon him': The Franklin Pierce Statue Controversy." ''Journal of the Gilded Age and Progressive Era'' (2013), 12#2, pp. 234–259.
  172. McPherson, 1982, p. 70.
  173. Klein, 1997, p. 46.
  174. McPherson, 1982, p. 74.
  175. Eicher, 2001, p. 44.
  176. Klein, 1997, p. 47.
  177. Bowman, 1982, p. 37.
  178. Hansen, 1861, p. 23.
  179. McPherson, 1982, p. 79.
  180. [[David M. Potter. Potter, David M.]] completed and edited by [[Don E. Fehrenbacher]] ''The Impending Crisis: America Before the Civil War, 1848–1861'' (1976), p. 294.
  181. McPherson, 1982, p. 73.
  182. McPherson, 1982, p. 111.
  183. McPherson, 1982, p. 92.
  184. Bowman, 1982, p. 38.
  185. (February 2000). "The Institutional Origins of the Republican Party: Spatial Voting and the House Speakership Election of 1855–56". Legislative Studies Quarterly.
  186. Nicole Etcheson, ''Bleeding Kansas: Contested Liberty in the Civil War Era'' (2004).
  187. Paul Finkelman, "John Brown America's First Terrorist?" ''Prologue'', Spring 2011, Vol. 43, Issue 1, pp. 16-27.
  188. Williamjames Hoffer, ''The Caning of Charles Sumner: Honor, Idealism, and the Origins of the Civil War'' (2010).
  189. (2004). "Atlas of the Civil War". Oxford UP.
  190. Nevins, 1947, pp. 470–471.
  191. Spencer Tucker. (2012). "Almanac of American Military History". ABC-CLIO.
  192. Bowman, 1982, p. 48.
  193. Wagner, 2009, pp. 64–65.
  194. Klein, 1997, p. 57.
  195. Wagner, 2009, p. 66.
  196. Don E. Fehrenbacher, ''Slavery, Law, and Politics: The Dred Scott Case in Historical Perspective'' (1981).
  197. Wagner, 2009, p. 64.
  198. Klein, 1997, p. 53.
  199. Wagner, 2009, p. 65.
  200. McPherson, 1982, p. 108.
  201. [https://www.mises.org/etexts/taussig.pdf Taussig, Frank. ''Tariff History of the United States''] (1912).
  202. McPherson, 1982, p. 104.
  203. Klein, 1997, p. 54.
  204. Kansas Historical Society. [http://www.kshs.org/kansapedia/marais-des-cygnes-massacre-site/11870 Marais des Cygnes Massacre site], June 2011. Retrieved December 28, 2012.
  205. Don E. Fehrenbacher, "The Origins and Purpose of Lincoln's" House-Divided" Speech." ''Mississippi Valley Historical Review'' (1960): 615–643 [http://www.journalofamericanhistory.org/projects/lincoln/bibliography/articles/pdf/LIJ-Article-1960s.pdf online] {{Webarchive. link. (April 25, 2012)
  206. Ramsey Coutta, ''Divine Institutions'' (2006), p. 153.
  207. Allen C. Guelzo, ''Lincoln and Douglas: The debates that defined America'' (2008).
  208. Rodriguez. (2007). "Slavery in the United States: A Social, Political, and Historical Encyclopedia". ABC-CLIO.
  209. Drew Gilpin Faust, ''James Henry Hammond and the old South: A design for mastery'' (1985).
  210. McPherson, 1982, p. 110.
  211. Eric Foner. (1970). "Free Soil, Free Labor, Free Men: The Ideology of the Republican Party Before the Civil War: With a New Introductory Essay". Oxford UP.
  212. McPherson, 1982, p. 123.
  213. McPherson, 1982, p. 80.
  214. Potter, (1976), p. 295.
  215. McPherson, 1982, p. 109.
  216. Bowman, 1982, p. 39
  217. Eicher, 2001, p. 45.
  218. Bowman, 1982, pp. 39–40.
  219. Klein, 1997, p. 58.
  220. Hansen, 1961, pp. 25–27.
  221. McPherson, 1982, pp. 115–117.
  222. Klein, 1997, p. 60.
  223. McPherson, 1982, pp. 112–113.
  224. Wagner, 2009, p. 74.
  225. Bowman, 1982, p. 40
  226. Hansen, 1961, p. 31.
  227. McPherson, 1982, pp. 117–118.
  228. Hansen, 1961, p. 32.
  229. McPherson, 1982, pp. 119–120.
  230. McPherson, 1982, p. 120.
  231. McPherson, 1982, p. 75.
  232. Bowman, 1982, pp. 40–41.
  233. Wagner, 2009, p. 3.
  234. Long, 1971, pp. 2–3.
  235. McPherson, 1982, p. 125.
  236. Hansen, 1961, p. 38
  237. Long, 1971, pp. 3–4
  238. Potter, 2011 (1976), p. 490.
  239. Long, 1971, pp. 4–5.
  240. Eicher, 2001, p. 46.
  241. Wagner incorrectly shows the date as December 10.
  242. Long, 1971, p. 5.
  243. Potter, 2011 (1976), p. 491.
  244. Long, 1971, pp. 5–6.
  245. Klein, 1997, p. 114.
  246. Long, 1971, p. 6.
  247. Long, 1971, p. 7
  248. Long, 1971, p. 8
  249. Potter, 2011 (1976), p. 492.
  250. Bowman, 1982, p. 41
  251. Bowman, 1982, pp. 41–42.
  252. Long, 1971, pp. 9, 16–17, 23.
  253. Long, 1971, p. 9.
  254. Long, 1971, p. 10.
  255. Long, 1971, p. 11.
  256. Long, 1971, pp. 12–13
  257. Hansen, 1961, p. 34.
  258. Hansen, 1961, p. 10.
  259. Eicher, 2001, pp. 34–35.
  260. Long, 1971, p. 12.
  261. Long, 1971, p. 27.
  262. McPherson, 1982, p. 135.
  263. Bowman, 1982, p. 43.
  264. Long, 1971, p. 13.
  265. Long, 1971, p. 18.
  266. Long, 1971, pp. 14–15.
  267. Long, 1971, pp. 15–16.
  268. Eicher, 2001, p. 35.
  269. Wagner, 2009, p. 4
  270. Hansen, 1961, p. 39
  271. McPherson, 1982, pp. 140–141.
  272. Klein, 1997, p. 107.
  273. Long, 1971, p. 17.
  274. Klein, 1997, p. 169
  275. Long, 1971, p. 16.
  276. Long, 1971, p. 45.
  277. Long, 1971, p. 47
  278. Bowman, 1982, p. 47.
  279. Long, 1971, p. 51.
  280. Potter, 2011 (1976), p. 493.
  281. Long, 1971, p. 21.
  282. Potter, 2011 (1976), pp. 493–494.
  283. Wagner, 2009, p. 67
  284. Bowman, 1982, p. 44.
  285. Long, 1971, pp. 21, 29.
  286. Bowman, 1982, p. 42
  287. Long, 1971, pp. 21, 22, 30.
  288. Long, 1971, p. 22.
  289. Wagner, 2009, p. 5.
  290. Long, 1971, pp. 22, 23, 24, 25.
  291. Potter, 2011 (1976), p. 497.
  292. Long, 1971, p. 23.
  293. Long, 1971, pp. 23–24.
  294. Long, 1971, p. 24.
  295. Bowman, 1982, pp. 42–43.
  296. Long, 1971, pp. 24, 25, 27, 30, 39.
  297. Bowman, 1982, p. 46.
  298. William H. Brantley, "Alabama Secedes," ''Alabama Review'' 7 (July 1954): 1 65-85.
  299. Long, 1971, p. 25.
  300. E. Merton Coulter, ''Georgia: a short history'' (1960), ch. 23.
  301. Long, 1971, p. 28.
  302. Willie Malvin Caskey, ''Secession and restoration of Louisiana'' (1970) ch 2
  303. Long, 1971, p. 30.
  304. Long, 1971, p. 31.
  305. Long, 1971, p. 36.
  306. Potter, 2011 (1976), pp. 507–508.
  307. Long, 1971, p. 32
  308. Long, 1971, pp. 30–31.
  309. Bowman, 1982, p. 45.
  310. Long, 1971, p. 33.
  311. Hansen, 1961, p. 35.
  312. Long, 1971, pp. 33–34
  313. Long, 1971, p. 34.
  314. McPherson, 1982, p. 137.
  315. Robert Gunderson, ''Old Gentlemen's Convention: The Washington Peace Conference of 1861'' (Univ. of Wisconsin Press, 1961).
  316. Bowman, 1982, pp. 44–45.
  317. Swanberg, W. A., ''First Blood: The story of Fort Sumter'', p. 127. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1957. [[OCLC. 475770]]
  318. Long, 1971, pp. 33, 36.
  319. Long, 1971, pp. 36–37.
  320. Long, 1971, p. 38
  321. Long, 1971, p. 39
  322. Long, 1971, p. 43.
  323. Potter, 2011 (1976), p. 509.
  324. Eicher, 2001, p. 48.
  325. Bowman, 1982, p. 49
  326. Long, 1971, pp. 38, 40, 42, 44, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 54, 59.
  327. Long, 1971, p. 42.
  328. Hansen, 1961, p. 94.
  329. Long, 1971, p. 48.
  330. McPherson, 1982, p. 154.
  331. Long, 1971, p. 133.
  332. Bowman's figures actually show the difference as only 194 votes.
  333. Long, 1971, p. 44.
  334. David Donald, ''Lincoln'' (1995), pp. 282–84.
  335. "https://web.archive.org/web/20161021171757/http://www.history.army.mil/books/AMH/AMH-09.htm The Civil War, 1861". American Military History. U.S. Army Center of Military History. Archived from the original on 21 October 2016. Retrieved 3 July 2023.
  336. Allan Nevins, ''The War for the Union'' (1959), 1:50, 59, 72.
  337. Wagner, 2009, p. 68.
  338. Long, 1971, pp. 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53.
  339. Long, 1971, p. 49.
  340. Hansen, 1961, p. 51.
  341. Long, 1971, pp. 52–53.
  342. Hansen, 1961, p. 52.
  343. Long, 1971, p. 50
  344. Eicher, 2001, p. 50
  345. Hansen, 1961, p. 41.
  346. Thomas E. Schott, "Cornerstone Speech," in ''The Confederacy'' edited by [[Richard N. Current]] (1993), pp. 298–299.
  347. Wagner, 2009, p. 6.
  348. Long, 1971, p. 53.
  349. Long, 1971, p. 54.
  350. Bowman, 1982, p. 50.
  351. Long, 1971, p. 55.
  352. Hansen, 1961, p. 42.
  353. Long, 1971, pp. 55–56.
  354. Eicher, 2001, p. 37.
  355. Long, 1971, p. 57.
  356. Long, 1971, p. 58.
  357. Hansen, 1961, p. 46.
  358. Eicher, 2001, p. 38.
  359. Bowman, 1982, p. 51.
  360. Eicher, 2001, p. 41.
  361. Long, 1971, pp. 56–59.
  362. McPherson, 1982, p. 145.
  363. Hansen, 1961, p. 48.
  364. Long, 1971, p. 59.
  365. Eicher, 2001, p. 53.
  366. Long, 1971, p. 60.
  367. Newell, Clayton R.. (1996). "Lee vs. McClellan : the first campaign". Washington, D.C. : Regnery Pub..
  368. McPherson, 1982, p. 150.
  369. Hansen, 1961, p. 68.
  370. Long, 1971, p. 62.
  371. Eicher, 2001, p. 52.
  372. Long, 1971, p. 70.
  373. Hansen, 1961, p. 69.
  374. Bowman, 1982, p. 55.
  375. Long, 1971, p. 77.
  376. Long, 1971, p. 61.
  377. Bowman, 1982, p. 52.
  378. Eicher, 2001, p. 54.
  379. Bowman, 1982, p. 53.
  380. Eicher, 2001, pp. 54–55.
  381. Long, 1971, p. 67.
  382. Hansen, 1961, p. 34 gives date as April 27.
  383. Long, 1971, p. 68.
  384. Bowman, 1982, p. 54.
  385. Long, 1971, p. 75.
  386. Wagner, 2009, p. 8.
  387. Long, 1971, pp. 75, 76.
  388. Stephen C. Neff, ''Justice in blue and gray: a legal history of the Civil War'' (2010), p. 29.
  389. Clayton E. Jewett and John O. Allen, ''Slavery in the South: a state-by-state history'' (2004), p. 23.
  390. Long, 1971, pp. 70–71.
  391. Long, 1971, p. 76.
  392. Bowman, 1982, p. 64
  393. Long, 1971, p. 117
  394. McPherson, 1982, pp. 154, 158.
  395. James B. Jones Jr., ''Tennessee in the Civil War: Selected Contemporary Accounts of Military and Other Events, Month by Month'' (2011), p. 22.
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