Schizotypal personality disorder

Signs and symptoms

Magical thinking

Odd and magical thinking is common among people with StPD. They are more likely to believe in supernatural phenomena and entities. It is common for people with StPD to experience severe social anxiety and have paranoid ideation. Ideas of reference are common in people with StPD. They can feel as if expressing themselves is dangerous. They may also feel that others are more competent, and have deeply entrenched and pervasive insecurities. Strange thinking patterns may be a defense mechanism against these feelings. People with StPD usually have limited levels of self-awareness. They may believe others think of them more negatively than they actually do.

Affect

Patients with StPD can have difficulties in recognizing their or others' emotions, which can extend to difficulty expressing emotion. They may have limited responses to others' emotions and can be ambivalent. It is common for people with StPD to derive limited joy from activities. People with StPD are typically more socially isolated and uninterested in social situations than people without StPD, although they are still likely to be socially active on the Internet. Depersonalization, derealization, boredom, and internal fantasies are common in patients with StPD. Abnormal facial expressions are also common in people with StPD, and they can have aberrant eye movements and difficulty responding to stimuli. They are often more prone to substance abuse or suicidal ideation. In an epidemiological study on suicidal behavior in StPD, even when sociodemographic factors were accounted for, people with StPD were 1.51 times more likely to attempt suicide. StPD is also often characterized as having similar symptoms as schizophrenia, but with less severe cognitive deficits.

Cognition

People with StPD tend to have cognitive impairments. They can have abnormal perceptional and sensory experiences such as illusions. For example, someone with StPD may perceive colors as lighter or darker than others perceive them. Facial perception may also be difficult for people with the disorder. They may see others as deformed, misrecognize them, or feel as if they are alien to them. People with StPD can have difficulty processing information such as speech or language. They are more likely to speak slowly, with less fluctuation in pitch, and long pauses between speech. Patients with StPD may have a lower odor detection threshold, and can have impaired auditory or olfactory processing. It is also common for people with StPD to struggle with context processing, which cause them to form loose connections between events. In addition, people with StPD can have decreased capacities for multisensory integration or contrast sensitivity, either hyperreactive or impaired reactions to sensory input, slower response times, impaired attention, poorer postural control, and difficulties with decision-making. They can have difficulties in memory, and may have frequent intrusive memories of events. It is common for people with StPD to feel déjà vu or as if they can accurately predict future events due to abnormalities in the brain's memory storage.

Causes

Genetic

Although environmental factors likely play an important role in the onset of the disorder, people who have relatives with schizotypy, mood disorders, or other disorders on the schizophrenia spectrum are at a higher likelihood of developing StPD.

The COMT Val158Met polymorphism and its Val or Met allele are suspected to be associated with Schizotypal personality disorder. These genes affect dopamine production in the brain, a neurochemical thought to be associated with schizotypal traits. The gene may also contribute to decreased levels of gray matter in the prefrontal cortex. This may lead to impaired capacities for decision-making, speech, cognitive flexibility, and altered perceptual experiences.

The rs1006737 polymorphism of the CACNA1C gene is also believed to have a part in schizotypal symptoms. It may lead to a significantly increased physiological response to stress through the cortisol awakening response in the brain. It may also negatively affect reward processing in the brain and lead to anhedonia or depression in patients. These factors possibly lead to the development of Schizotypal traits.

The zinc-finger protein ZNF804A likely affects the levels of paranoia, anxiety, and ideas of reference in StPD. This gene is also thought to negatively impact attention in people with StPD. It may lead to an increased level of white matter volume in the frontal lobe.

Another gene, the NOTCH4 is thought to relate to schizophrenia spectrum disorders. It can lead to disruptions in the occipital cortex, and therefore symptoms of schizotypy. The GLRA1 and the p250GAP genes are also potentially associated with StPD. It may lead to abnormally low levels of Glutamic acids in the NMDA receptors, which impairs memory and learning. StPD may stem from abnormalities in Chromosome 22.

Neurological

Exposure to influenza during week 23 of gestation is associated with a higher likelihood of developing StPD. Poor nutrition in childhood may also contribute to the onset of StPD by altering the course of brain development.

Numerous areas of the brain are thought to be associated with StPD. Higher levels of dopamine in the brain, possibly specifically the D1 receptor, might contribute to the development of StPD. StPD is associated with heightened dopaminergic activity in the striatum. Their symptoms may also stem from higher presynaptic dopamine release.

People with StPD may also have decreased volumes of grey or white matter in their caudate nucleus, which leads to difficulties in speech.

People with StPD likely have a reduced volume in their temporal lobes, possibly specifically the left hemisphere. The reduced levels of gray matter in these areas may be linked to their negative symptoms. Reduced volume of gray or white matter in the superior temporal gyrus or the transverse temporal gyrus are thought to lead to issues with speech, memory, and hallucinations. Deficits in the gray matter volume of the temporal lobe and prefrontal cortex are likely associated with impairments in cognitive function, sensory processing, speech, executive function, decision-making, and emotional processing present in people with StPD.

StPD symptoms may also be influenced by reduced internal capsule, which carries information to the cerebral cortex. People with StPD can also have impairments in the uncinate fasciculus, which connects parts of the limbic system. People with StPD have reduced levels of gray matter in their middle frontal gyrus and Brodmann area 10, although not as reduced as patients with schizophrenia, possibly preventing them from developing schizophrenia. Increased gyrification in gyri by the cerebellum may lead to dysconnectivity in the brain, and therefore, schizotypal symptoms.

They may also have a hyporeactive or hyperreactive amygdala as well as hyperactive pituitary glands and putamens.

It is also possible that lower capacities for prepulse inhibition plays a role in StPD. Research has suggested that people with StPD can have higher concentrations of Homovanillic acids. Abnormalities in the cave of septum pellucidum may also be present.

In people predisposed to schizophrenia spectrum disorders, the consumption of cannabis can induce the onset of StPD or other disorders with psychotic symptoms.

Environmental

Unique environmental factors, which differ from shared sibling experiences, have been found to play a role in the development of StPD and its dimensions. There is evidence to suggest that parenting styles, early separation, childhood trauma, and childhood neglect can lead to the development of schizotypal traits. Neglect, abuse, stress, trauma, or family dysfunction during childhood may increase the risk of developing schizotypal personality disorder. People with the most severe cases of StPD usually have a combination of childhood trauma and a genetic basis for their condition.

During childhood, people with StPD may have seen little emotional expression from their parents. Another possibility is that they were excessively criticized or felt like they were constantly under threat, potentially resulting in the onset of social anxiety, strange thinking patterns, and blunted affect present in StPD.

Over time, children learn to interpret social cues and respond appropriately but for unknown reasons this process does not work well for people with this disorder. Their difficulties in social situations might eventually cause the individual to withdraw from most social interactions, thus leading to asociality. Children with schizotypal symptoms usually are more likely to indulge in internal fantasies and are more anxious, socially isolated, and sensitive to criticism.

There is also evidence indicating that disruptions in brain development during the prenatal period could affect the development of StPD.

Diagnosis

Classification

The two most prominent frameworks for classification of mental disorders are the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) and the International Classification of Diseases (ICD). While classified as a personality disorder in the DSM-5; under the name schizotypal disorder, it is classified among schizophrenia spectrum disorders in the ICD-11 and previous revisions of the ICD. Approaches to classification of personality disorders vary.

DSM-5

The DSM-5 includes two distinct diagnostic models for personality disorder (PD). The DSM-5’s main body (Section II) retains a traditional, categorical model of 10 putatively distinct PDs, whereas its Section III (Emerging Models and Methods) introduces an alternative, dimensional model for PD – namely, the Alternative DSM-5 Model for Personality Disorders (AMPD) – consisting of two main criteria—personality functioning and personality traits—both of which range from the adaptive to the maladaptive range.

In its section II chapter on personality disorders, the latest edition of the DSM – namely the DSM-5-TR – defines STPD as "a pattern of acute discomfort in close relationships, cognitive or perceptual distortions, and eccentricities of behavior". Retained from the DSM-IV-TR, the criteria require that at least five out of nine diagnostic criteria are met. In addition to the aforementioned criteria, a diagnosis requires that the condition is not merely a part of the manifestation of a disorder causing psychosis, such as schizophrenia, nor of autism spectrum disorder.

The AMPD defines six specific personality disorders – one of them being STPD – in terms of a description of the disorder; the characteristic manner in which the disorder impacts personality functioning, i.e. identity, self-direction, empathy and intimacy (criterion A); as well as a listing and description of the pathological personality traits associated with the disorder (criterion B). While at least two of the elements of personality functioning must have a "moderate or greater impairment", criterion B for Schizotypal PD requires four or more of six trait facets: Cognitive and Perceptual Dysregulation, Unusual beliefs and Experiences, Eccentric Perceptions (all three of which are facets of the Psychoticism domain), Restricted Affectivity, Withdrawal, and Suspiciousness. Other traits can be included in the diagnosis as specifiers. Five additional criteria (C through G) further define the two main criteria.

ICD

Neither the ICD-10 nor the ICD-11 conceptualize StPD as being a personality disorder. Instead, it is listed together with psychotic disorders as "Schizotypal disorder" in the ICD-11 (as ) and the ICD-10 (as ). In regards to personality disorders, the ICD-11 classification of personality disorders has replaced the categorical classification of personality disorders in the ICD-10 with a dimensional model containing a unified personality disorder () with severity specifiers, along with specifiers for prominent personality traits or patterns (). While there is no specific PD diagnosis for StPD, schizotypal features – such as eccentricity and psychotic-like experiences – are considered indicators of severity, especially in severe cases involving impaired reality testing. These features are not coded as traits but inform the overall level of dysfunction.

Differential diagnosis

Other mental disorders with psychotic symptoms should be considered. Unlike delusional disorder, schizophrenia, or mood disorders with psychotic features, StPD is not characterized by a persistent period of psychotic symptoms. StPD symptoms must also persist when psychotic symptoms are not present.

It should also be differentiated from other personality disorders; they can have symptoms similar to StPD. People with schizotypal personality disorder, paranoid personality disorder and schizoid personality disorder can also be socially detached and have blunted affects, but without the cognitive or perceptual distortions of StPD. Individuals with StPD and people with avoidant personality disorder can have limited close relationships. However, people with AvPD rarely have the eccentric behaviour of StPD. Psychotic-like symptoms can also appear in borderline personality disorder, but those with BPD fear social isolation while those with StPD are comfortable with it. People with StPD are also usually less impulsive than people with BPD. Individuals with narcissistic personality disorder may also appear socially alienated, however, this is due to fears of having flaws noticed by others.

Another differential diagnosis is personality change due to another medical condition; symptoms similar to those of StPD can appear due to other medical conditions that affect the central nervous system or substance use disorders. Consideration should also be given to autism spectrum disorder and communication disorders.

Screening

There are various methods of screening for schizotypal personality. The Schizotypal Personality Questionnaire (SPQ) measures nine traits of StPD using a self-report assessment. The nine traits referenced are Ideas of Reference, Excessive Social Anxiety, Odd Beliefs or Magical Thinking, Unusual Perceptual Experiences, Odd or Eccentric Behavior, No Close Friends, Odd Speech, Constricted Affect, and Suspiciousness. A study found that of the participants who scored in the top 10th percentile of all the SPQ scores, 55% were clinically diagnosed with StPD. It has been adapted into a computerized adaptive version, known as the SPQ-CAT. A method that measures the risk of developing psychosis through self-reports is the Wisconsin Schizotypy Scale (WSS). The WSS divides schizotypal personality traits into 4 scales for Perceptual Aberration, Magical Ideation, Revised Social Anhedonia, and Physical Anhedonia. A comparison of the SPQ and the WSS suggests that these measures should be cautiously used for screening of StPD.

When screening for StPD, it is difficult to distinguish between schizotypal personality disorder and autism spectrum disorder. In order to develop better screening tools, researchers are looking into the importance of ipseity disturbance, which is characteristic of schizophrenia spectrum disorders such as StPD but not of autism.

Millon's subtypes

Theodore Millon proposes two subtypes of schizotypal personality. Any individual with schizotypal personality disorder may exhibit either one of the following somewhat different subtypes (note that Millon believes it is rare for a personality to show one pure variant, but rather a mixture of one major variant with one or more secondary variants):

Millon's typology of personality disorders was influential in the development of the DSM-III, particularly with respect to distinguishing between schizoid, schizotypal and avoidant personality disorders. These had previously been considered different surface-level expressions of the same underlying personality structure, and some psychologists, particularly those working in psychoanalytic or psychodynamic traditions, still take these personality disorders to be essentially similar.

Treatment

Medication

Psychotherapy

According to Theodore Millon, schizotypal personality disorder is one of the most straightforward personality disorders to identify but one of the most difficult to treat with psychotherapy. Cognitive remediation therapy, metacognitive therapy, supportive psychotherapy, social skills training, evolutionary systems therapy and cognitive-behavioral therapy can be effective treatments for the disorder. Increased social interaction with others may be able to help limit symptoms of StPD. Support is crucial for schizotypal patients with predominant paranoid symptoms because they may have difficulties even in highly structured groups. Persons with StPD usually consider themselves to be simply eccentric or nonconformist; the degree to which they consider their social nonconformity a problem differs from the degree to which it is viewed as a problem in psychiatry. It is difficult to gain rapport with people with StPD because increasing familiarity and intimacy often increase their level of anxiety and discomfort. Therapy for StPD must be flexible to face emergencies or unique challenges.

Prognosis

People with StPD usually had symptoms of schizotypal personality disorder in childhood. Traits of StPD usually remain consistently present over time, although can fluctuate greatly in severity and stability. The two traits of StPD which are least likely to change are paranoia and abnormal experiences. DSM characterizes StPD as having nine major symptoms: ideas of reference, odd/magical beliefs, social anxiety, not having close friends, odd or eccentric behavior, odd speech, unusual perceptions, suspiciousness, schizo-obsessive behaviors and constricted affect.

There may be gender differences in the symptomology of men and women with StPD. Women with the disorder might be more likely to have less severe cognitive deficits, and more severe social anxiety and magical thinking. Symptoms of depression in women with StPD have a more negative impact on cognitive functioning than in males diagnosed with StPD and depression. In males with the disorder, abstraction and verbal learning are more likely to be in deficit compared to women, who tend to be less vulnerable to verbal deficits.

StPD tends to develop in adolescence and early adulthood, accompanied by a gradual decline in functioning and the increased development of StPD symptoms. Adolescents with StPD were more likely to have performance deficits, especially in arithmetic, and to display significantly lower levels of executive functioning, similar to autism spectrum disorder. Compared to those without StPD, adolescents with StPD spend more time socializing on the Internet, such as on forums, chat rooms and cooperative computer games, and spend less time socializing in-person. People with StPD are more likely to only have a high school education, to be unemployed, and to have significant functional impairment.

Roughly 20-30% of those diagnosed with StPD will later develop schizophrenia. One study found that substance use is a risk factor. The same study found that older age presented a reduced risk, and that preexisting anxiety and depression disorders had protective effects.

Epidemiology

The reported prevalence of StPD in community studies ranges from 1.37% in a Norwegian sample, to 4.6% in an American sample. A large American study found a lifetime prevalence of 3.9%, with somewhat higher rates among men (4.2%) than women (3.7%). It may be uncommon in clinical populations, with reported rates of up to 1.9%. It has been estimated to be prevalent among up to 5.2% of the general population. Together with other cluster A personality disorders, it is also very common among homeless people who show up at drop-in centers, according to a 2008 New York study. The study did not address homeless people who do not show up at drop-in centers. Schizotypal disorder may be overdiagnosed in Russia and other post-Soviet states.

Schizotypal can be diagnosed in early childhood, with diagnostic validity beginning at age five. Though the prevalence is not yet established, one study found a prevalence of definite psychotic symptoms in children of 5.9% and 10.2%.

Common comorbidities

StPD can be diagnosed alongside other disorders, including borderline personality disorder (BPD), attention-deficit disorder, social anxiety disorder, and autism spectrum disorder. Comorbidities such as these can influence and potentially interfere with an individual's diagnosis of StPD. People who are treatment-resistant to obsessive–compulsive disorder (OCD) behavioral therapy and medication that also display odd or eccentric behaviors could contribute to the coexistence of obsessive–compulsive disorder with schizotypal disorder. In the case that StPD precedes a diagnosis of schizophrenia, the StPD diagnosis is maintained but marked as premorbid.

• Antisocial personality disorder
• Avoidant personality disorder
• Bipolar disorder
• Borderline personality disorder
• Dysthymia
• Narcissistic personality disorder
• Obsessive–compulsive disorder
• Major depressive disorder
• Paranoid personality disorder
• Post-traumatic stress disorder
• Schizoid personality disorder
• Schizophrenia
• Substance use disorders
• Social anxiety disorder
• Dissociative identity disorder

History

StPD was introduced in 1980 in the DSM-III. Its inclusion provided a new classification for schizophrenia-spectrum disorders and of personality disorders that were previously unspecified. Its diagnosis was developed through differentiating the classifications of borderline personality disorder, of which some of the diagnosed population demonstrated schizophrenia-spectrum traits. When the separation of borderline personality disorder and StPD was originally suggested by Spitzer and Endicott, Siever and Gunderson opposed the distinction. Siever and Gunderson's opposition to Spitzer and Endicott was that StPD was related to schizophrenia. Spitzer and Endicott stated "We believe, as do the authors, that the evidence for the genetic relationship between Schizotypal features and Chronic Schizophrenia is suggestive rather than proven". StPD was included in the DSM-IV and the DSM-5 and saw little change in its diagnosis.

References

References

1. (July 2021). "Relationship between Dissociative Experiences and Schizotypal Personality Traits: Mediating Role of Inferential Confusion". Iranian Journal of Psychiatry.
2. (20 July 2021). "Schizotypal personality disorder disguised as dissociative identity disorder.". BMJ Case Reports.
3. (October 2007). "Why dissociation and schizotypy overlap: the joint influence of fantasy proneness, cognitive failures, and childhood trauma". The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease.
4. "The ICD-10 Classification of Mental and Behavioural Disorders Clinical descriptions and diagnostic guidelines". [[World Health Organization]].
5. (July 2014). "Schizotypal personality disorder: a current review". Current Psychiatry Reports.
6. (2010). "Psychology". Worth Publishers.
7. Henriksen, Mads Gram. (2021-11-01). "Self-disorders and psychopathology: a systematic review". The Lancet Psychiatry.
8. (December 2010). "Cluster A Personality Disorders: Schizotypal, Schizoid and Paranoid Personality Disorders in Childhood and Adolescence". Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment.
9. (2020-12-24). "Classification and Diagnosis of Schizophrenia or Other Primary Psychotic Disorders: Changes from Icd-10 to Icd-11 and Implementation in Clinical Practice". Psychiatria Danubina.
10. (2009). "Prevalence, correlates, disability, and comorbidity of DSM-IV schizotypal personality disorder: results from the wave 2 national epidemiologic survey on alcohol and related conditions". Primary Care Companion to the Journal of Clinical Psychiatry.
11. (October 2018). "The Network Structure of Schizotypal Personality Traits". Schizophrenia Bulletin.
12. (April 2016). "Schizotypal personality questionnaire--brief revised (updated): An update of norms, factor structure, and item content in a large non-clinical young adult sample". Psychiatry Research.
13. (2021). "Relationship of abstract thinking to mentalization in schizophrenia". European Psychiatry.
14. (2019-03-08). "Spirituality, dimensional autism, and schizotypal traits: The search for meaning". PLOS ONE.
15. (2020-10-19). "Relationship between religiosity domains and traits from borderline and schizotypal personality disorders in a Brazilian community sample". Trends in Psychiatry and Psychotherapy.
16. (2015-03-04). "Schizotypy and Religiosity: The Magic of Prayer". Archive for the Psychology of Religion.
17. (2009). "Differential Relationships between Experiential and Interpretive Dimensions of Mysticism and Schizotypal Magical Ideation in a University Sample". Archive for the Psychology of Religion.
18. (April 2017). "Comparing Facial Emotional Recognition in Patients with Borderline Personality Disorder and Patients with Schizotypal Personality Disorder with a Normal Group". Iranian Journal of Psychiatry.
19. (October 2005). "Clinical, cognitive, and social characteristics of a sample of neuroleptic-naive persons with schizotypal personality disorder". Schizophrenia Research.
20. {{cite encyclopedia. Wiley. (2020-09-18)
21. (May 2012). "Some suggestions for the DSM-5 schizotypal personality disorder construct". Comprehensive Psychiatry.
22. (July 2019). "Comparison of self-report and clinician-rated schizotypal traits in schizotypal personality disorder and community controls". Schizophrenia Research.
23. (May 2020). "Pathogenic beliefs among patients with schizotypal personality disorder". Heliyon.
24. (July 2021). "The Self in the Spectrum: A Meta-analysis of the Evidence Linking Basic Self-Disorders and Schizophrenia". Schizophrenia Bulletin.
25. (August 2015). "The Role of Metaperception in Personality Disorders: Do People with Personality Problems Know How Others Experience Their Personality?". Journal of Personality Disorders.
26. (September 2011). "Facial emotion recognition and facial affect display in schizotypal personality disorder". Schizophrenia Research.
27. (September 2010). "Empathy, schizotypy, and visuospatial transformations". Cognitive Neuropsychiatry.
28. (December 2012). "Prosodic abnormalities in schizotypal personality disorder". Schizophrenia Research.
29. (September 2008). "Emotion processing in persons at risk for schizophrenia". Schizophrenia Bulletin.
30. (January 2011). "Interactive decision-making in people with schizotypal traits: a game theory approach". Psychiatry Research.
31. (2012-05-16). "Experience of pleasure and emotional expression in individuals with schizotypal personality features". PLOS ONE.
32. (September 2011). "Self-reported pleasure experience and motivation in individuals with schizotypal personality disorders proneness". East Asian Archives of Psychiatry.
33. (September 2008). "Affective traits in schizophrenia and schizotypy". Schizophrenia Bulletin.
34. (November 2013). "Developmental trajectories of schizotypal personality disorder-like behavioural manifestations: a two-year longitudinal prospective study of college students". BMC Psychiatry.
35. (May 2010). "Developmental instability in social anhedonia: an examination of minor physical anomalies and clinical characteristics". Schizophrenia Research.
36. (2021). "Productivity of the performance of visual perceptual tasks and symptom severity in patients with schizotypal disorder". European Psychiatry.
37. (August 2007). "Elevated social Internet use and schizotypal personality disorder in adolescents". Schizophrenia Research.
38. (December 2021). "Measuring pathological traits of the schizotypal personality disorder through the HiTOP model". Scandinavian Journal of Psychology.
39. (2018-12-27). "Depersonalization/Derealization Disorder and Schizotypal Personality Disorder". Wiley.
40. (November 19, 2018). "Psychosis, Trauma and Dissociation: Evolving Perspectives on Severe Psychopathology". [[Wiley (publisher).
41. (January 2019). "Identity Disturbance, Feelings of Emptiness, and the Boundaries of the Schizophrenia Spectrum". Schizophrenia Bulletin.
42. (December 1984). "Impaired smooth pursuit eye movement: vulnerability marker for schizotypal personality disorder in a normal volunteer population". The American Journal of Psychiatry.
43. (September 2008). "Frontal-striatal-thalamic mediodorsal nucleus dysfunction in schizophrenia-spectrum patients during sensorimotor gating". NeuroImage.
44. (June 1990). "Eye tracking impairment in clinically identified patients with schizotypal personality disorder". The American Journal of Psychiatry.
45. (August 1994). "Eye movement impairment and schizotypal psychopathology". The American Journal of Psychiatry.
46. (January 2000). "Sensory gating deficits assessed by the P50 event-related potential in subjects with schizotypal personality disorder". The American Journal of Psychiatry.
47. (September 2011). "The silent side of the spectrum: schizotypy and the schizotaxic self". Schizophrenia Bulletin.
48. (February 1997). "Symptoms, subtype, and suicidality in patients with schizophrenia spectrum disorders". The American Journal of Psychiatry.
49. (2005-09-28). "Cognitive Function and Symptoms in Adolescents with Schizotypal Personality Disorder". Schizophrenia Bulletin.
50. (January 2003). "Generalized cognitive impairment in male adolescents with schizotypal personality disorder". American Journal of Medical Genetics. Part B, Neuropsychiatric Genetics.
51. (February 2015). "Sensory gating disturbances in the spectrum: similarities and differences in schizotypal personality disorder and schizophrenia". Schizophrenia Research.
52. (October 2014). "Illusory superiority and schizotypal personality: explaining the discrepancy between subjective/objective psychopathology". Personality Disorders.
53. (March 2015). "Strange-face-in-the-mirror illusion and schizotypy during adolescence". Schizophrenia Bulletin.
54. (September 2009). "Schizotypal personality traits influence idiosyncratic initiation of saccadic face exploration". Vision Research.
55. (February 2020). "Neurophysiological substrates of configural face perception in schizotypy". Schizophrenia Research.
56. (March 2016). "Electrophysiological correlates of emotional meaning in context in relation to facets of schizotypal personality traits: A dimensional study". Psychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences.
57. (October 2005). "Neuropsychological performance in schizotypal personality disorder: importance of working memory". The American Journal of Psychiatry.
58. (2016-01-01). "Neurophysiological evidence of impaired self-monitoring in schizotypal personality disorder and its reversal by dopaminergic antagonism". NeuroImage. Clinical.
59. (May 2009). "Abnormal pitch mismatch negativity in individuals with schizotypal personality disorder". Schizophrenia Research.
60. (September 2020). "Schizotypal traits and neuropsychological performance: The role of processing speed". Schizophrenia Research.
61. (August 2010). "Factors in sensory processing of prosody in schizotypal personality disorder: an fMRI experiment". Schizophrenia Research.
62. (July 2019). "Olfactory threshold selectively predicts positive psychometric schizotypy". Schizophrenia Research.
63. (December 2003). "EEG synchronization to modulated auditory tones in schizophrenia, schizoaffective disorder, and schizotypal personality disorder". The American Journal of Psychiatry.
64. (October 2002). "Semantic dysfunction in women with schizotypal personality disorder". The American Journal of Psychiatry.
65. (May 2008). "Context processing in schizotypal personality disorder: evidence of specificity of impairment to the schizophrenia spectrum". Journal of Abnormal Psychology.
66. (February 2010). "An event-related brain potential study of schizotypal personality and associative semantic processing". International Journal of Psychophysiology.
67. (April 2011). "Deficient visual sensitivity in schizotypal personality disorder". Schizophrenia Research.
68. (January 2020). "Selectively reduced contrast sensitivity in high schizotypy". Experimental Brain Research.
69. (December 2016). "Spatiotemporal processing of somatosensory stimuli in schizotypy". Scientific Reports.
70. (February 2021). "The Relationship Between Multisensory Temporal Processing and Schizotypal Traits". Multisensory Research.
71. (October 2001). "Abnormalities of auditory event-related potentials in students with schizotypal personality disorder". Psychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences.
72. (May 2004). "Processing sentence context in women with schizotypal personality disorder: an ERP study". Psychophysiology.
73. (August 2008). "Auditory processing abnormalities in schizotypal personality disorder: an fMRI experiment using tones of deviant pitch and duration". Schizophrenia Research.
74. (January 2021). "Attenuated Resting-State Functional Anticorrelation between Attention and Executive Control Networks in Schizotypal Personality Disorder". Journal of Clinical Medicine.
75. (July 2006). "Cognitive function and symptoms in adolescents with schizotypal personality disorder". Schizophrenia Bulletin.
76. (May 1997). "Attentional functioning in schizotypal personality disorder". The American Journal of Psychiatry.
77. (April 2019). "Postural Sway Abnormalities in Schizotypal Personality Disorder". Schizophrenia Bulletin.
78. (October 2000). "Lateralized P3 deficit in schizotypal personality disorder". Biological Psychiatry.
79. (June 2012). "Cerebellar-dependent eyeblink conditioning deficits in schizophrenia spectrum disorders". Schizophrenia Bulletin.
80. (May 2000). "Visual perception and working memory in schizotypal personality disorder". The American Journal of Psychiatry.
81. (December 2010). "Increased temporal variability of auditory event-related potentials in schizophrenia and Schizotypal Personality Disorder". Schizophrenia Research.
82. (April 2011). "Dorso- and ventro-lateral prefrontal volume and spatial working memory in schizotypal personality disorder". Behavioural Brain Research.
83. (September 2012). "Schizotypal personality and vulnerability to involuntary autobiographical memories". Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry.
84. (January 2011). "Schizotypal perceptual aberrations of time: correlation between score, behavior and brain activity". PLOS ONE.
85. (March 2015). "Developing psychosis and its risk states through the lens of schizotypy". Schizophrenia Bulletin.
86. (2019). "Psychosis and Schizophrenia-Spectrum Personality Disorders Require Early Detection on Different Symptom Dimensions". Frontiers in Psychiatry.
87. (2020-08-10). "A brief questionnaire measure of multidimensional schizotypy predicts interview-rated symptoms and impairment". PLOS ONE.
88. (1989). "DSM-III-R schizotypal personality traits in offspring of schizophrenic disorder, affective disorder, and normal control parents". Journal of Psychiatric Research.
89. (November 2011). "A multivariate perspective on schizotypy and familial association with schizophrenia: a review". Clinical Psychology Review.
90. (October 2013). "Schizotypy and personality profiles of Cluster A in a group of schizophrenic patients and their siblings". BMC Psychiatry.
91. (November 2014). "BDNF val66met genotype and schizotypal personality traits interact to influence probabilistic association learning". Behavioural Brain Research.
92. (2005). "Endophenotypes in the personality disorders". Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience.
93. (November 2008). "Anhedonia as a phenotype for the Val158Met COMT polymorphism in relatives of patients with schizophrenia". Journal of Abnormal Psychology.
94. (December 2007). "Catechol-O-methyltransferase Val158Met genotype in healthy and personality disorder individuals: Preliminary results from an examination of cognitive tests hypothetically differentially sensitive to dopamine functions". Neuropsychiatric Disease and Treatment.
95. (September 2008). "Effect of COMT val158met genotype on cognition and personality". European Psychiatry.
96. (July 2019). "Interrogating the Relationship Between Schizotypy, the Catechol-O-Methyltransferase (COMT) Val158Met Polymorphism, and Neuronal Oscillatory Activity". Cerebral Cortex.
97. (May 2007). "Effects of the catechol-O-methyltransferase Val158Met polymorphism on executive function: a meta-analysis of the Wisconsin Card Sort Test in schizophrenia and healthy controls". Molecular Psychiatry.
98. (March 2008). "Personality in relation to genetic liability for schizophrenia and bipolar disorder: differential associations with the COMT Val 108/158 Met polymorphism". Schizophrenia Research.
99. (December 2008). "Improvement of prepulse inhibition and executive function by the COMT inhibitor tolcapone depends on COMT Val158Met polymorphism". Neuropsychopharmacology.
100. (2022-04-01). "Prefrontal abnormalities, executive dysfunction and symptoms severity are modulated by COMT Val158Met polymorphism in first episode psychosis". Revista de Psiquiatría y Salud Mental.
101. (October 2013). "A review of neuroimaging studies of young relatives of individuals with schizophrenia: a developmental perspective from schizotaxia to schizophrenia". American Journal of Medical Genetics. Part B, Neuropsychiatric Genetics.
102. (November 2008). "Prepulse inhibition of the startle reflex depends on the catechol O-methyltransferase Val158Met gene polymorphism". Psychological Medicine.
103. (December 2009). "The effect of the COMT val(158)met polymorphism on neural correlates of semantic verbal fluency". European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience.
104. (February 2004). "Catechol O-methyltransferase Val158Met polymorphism in schizophrenia: differential effects of Val and Met alleles on cognitive stability and flexibility". The American Journal of Psychiatry.
105. (December 2016). "Does COMT val158met polymorphism influence P50 sensory gating, eye tracking or saccadic inhibition dysfunctions in schizophrenia?". Psychiatry Research.
106. (March 2018). "Outgroup emotion processing in the vACC is modulated by childhood trauma and CACNA1C risk variant". Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience.
107. (July 2018). "Interactive effects of early life stress and CACNA1C genotype on cortisol awakening response". Biological Psychology.
108. (2021). "Investigating Individual Differences in Acute Psychosocial Stress Reactivity and Evaluation of Wearable Devices for Heart Rate Variability Measurement". University of Lincoln.
109. (April 1999). "Minor physical anomalies, dermatoglyphic asymmetries, and cortisol levels in adolescents with schizotypal personality disorder". The American Journal of Psychiatry.
110. (June 2015). "The effects of the CACNA1C rs1006737 A/G on affective startle modulation in healthy males". European Psychiatry.
111. (October 2014). "CACNA1C risk variant affects reward responsiveness in healthy individuals". Translational Psychiatry.
112. (October 2010). "The bipolar disorder risk allele at CACNA1C also confers risk of recurrent major depression and of schizophrenia". Molecular Psychiatry.
113. (March 2013). "CACNA1C as a risk factor for schizotypal personality disorder and schizotypy in healthy individuals". Psychiatry Research.
114. (November 2013). "Variation in psychosis gene ZNF804A is associated with a refined schizotypy phenotype but not neurocognitive performance in a large young male population". Schizophrenia Bulletin.
115. (October 2010). "A schizophrenia risk gene, ZNF804A, influences neuroanatomical and neurocognitive phenotypes". Neuropsychopharmacology.
116. (May 2011). "Impact on schizotypal personality trait of a genome-wide supported psychosis variant of the ZNF804A gene". Neuroscience Letters.
117. (January 2014). "Analysis of schizophrenia-related genes and electrophysiological measures reveals ZNF804A association with amplitude of P300b elicited by novel sounds". Translational Psychiatry.
118. (September 2012). "Influence of ZNF804a on brain structure volumes and symptom severity in individuals with schizophrenia". Archives of General Psychiatry.
119. (April 2003). "NOTCH4 and the frontal lobe in schizophrenia". American Journal of Medical Genetics. Part B, Neuropsychiatric Genetics.
120. (September 2017). "A review of endophenotypes in schizophrenia and autism: The next phase for understanding genetic etiologies". American Journal of Medical Genetics. Part C, Seminars in Medical Genetics.
121. (July 2020). "A common variant of the NOTCH4 gene modulates functional connectivity of the occipital cortex and its relationship with schizotypal traits". BMC Psychiatry.
122. (August 2018). "Current Knowledge on Gene-Environment Interactions in Personality Disorders: an Update". Current Psychiatry Reports.
123. (2020). "Personality disorders diagnosis, causes, and treatments". Demiroglu Science University Florence Nightingale Journal of Transplantation.
124. (June 2016). "Genetic and Neuroimaging Features of Personality Disorders: State of the Art". Neuroscience Bulletin.
125. (June 2018). "Dimensional Traits of Schizotypy Associated With Glycine Receptor GLRA1 Polymorphism: An Exploratory Candidate-Gene Association Study". Journal of Personality Disorders.
126. (2012-04-18). "The p250GAP gene is associated with risk for schizophrenia and schizotypal personality traits". PLOS ONE.
127. (2016). "Genetic Consideration of Schizotypal Traits: A Review". Frontiers in Psychology.
128. (March 2014). "Treating working memory deficits in schizophrenia: a review of the neurobiology". Biological Psychiatry.
129. (September 2008). "Childhood and current autistic features in adolescents with schizotypal personality disorder". Schizophrenia Research.
130. (June 2011). "Prodromal symptoms in adolescents with 22q11.2 deletion syndrome and schizotypal personality disorder". Schizophrenia Research.
131. (2021). "Case Report: The Association Between Chromosomal Anomalies and Cluster A Personality Disorders: The Case of Two Siblings With 16p11.2 Deletion and a Review of the Literature". Frontiers in Psychiatry.
132. (August 2012). "Poor nutrition at age 3 and schizotypal personality at age 23: the mediating role of age 11 cognitive functioning". The American Journal of Psychiatry.
133. (December 2011). "Dopamine synthesis capacity before onset of psychosis: a prospective [18F]-DOPA PET imaging study". The American Journal of Psychiatry.
134. (April 2011). "Correlation of individual differences in schizotypal personality traits with amphetamine-induced dopamine release in striatal and extrastriatal brain regions". The American Journal of Psychiatry.
135. (July 2018). "Targeting the dopamine D₁ receptor or its downstream signalling by inhibiting phosphodiesterase-1 improves cognitive performance". British Journal of Pharmacology.
136. (2005-12-01). "Dopamine regulation in schizotypal personality disorder and psychosis". Current Psychosis & Therapeutics Reports.
137. (June 2004). "Targeting the dopamine D1 receptor in schizophrenia: insights for cognitive dysfunction". Psychopharmacology.
138. (January 2018). "Ventral Striatal Dysfunction and Symptom Expression in Individuals With Schizotypal Personality Traits and Early Psychosis". Schizophrenia Bulletin.
139. (2019-01-01). "Multi-echo fMRI, resting-state connectivity, and high psychometric schizotypy". NeuroImage. Clinical.
140. (2004-03-01). "The Pathophysiology of Schizophrenia Disorders: Perspectives From the Spectrum". American Journal of Psychiatry.
141. (April 2019). "Schizotypal Traits are Linked to Dopamine-Induced Striato-Cortical Decoupling: A Randomized Double-Blind Placebo-Controlled Study". Schizophrenia Bulletin.
142. (April 2011). "Presynaptic dopamine in schizophrenia". CNS Neuroscience & Therapeutics.
143. (June 2013). "Neuroimaging findings in schizotypal personality disorder: a systematic review". Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology & Biological Psychiatry.
144. (December 2011). "Dopamine synthesis capacity before onset of psychosis: a prospective [18F]-DOPA PET imaging study". The American Journal of Psychiatry.
145. (July 2013). "Presynaptic striatal dopamine dysfunction in people at ultra-high risk for psychosis: findings in a second cohort". Biological Psychiatry.
146. (January 2004). "Shape of caudate nucleus and its cognitive correlates in neuroleptic-naive schizotypal personality disorder". Biological Psychiatry.
147. (October 2006). "Characterizing the shape of anatomical structures with Poisson's equation". IEEE Transactions on Medical Imaging.
148. (2007). "Global Medical Shape Analysis Using the Laplace-Beltrami Spectrum".
149. (July 2006). "Reduction of caudate nucleus volumes in neuroleptic-naïve female subjects with schizotypal personality disorder". Biological Psychiatry.
150. (May 2009). "Shape abnormalities of caudate nucleus in schizotypal personality disorder". Schizophrenia Research.
151. (July 2002). "MRI study of caudate nucleus volume and its cognitive correlates in neuroleptic-naive patients with schizotypal personality disorder". The American Journal of Psychiatry.
152. (June 1999). "Schizotypal personality disorder and MRI abnormalities of temporal lobe gray matter". Biological Psychiatry.
153. (February 2017). "Reduced functional connectivity between bilateral precuneus and contralateral parahippocampus in schizotypal personality disorder". BMC Psychiatry.
154. (January 2000). "Large CSF volume not attributable to ventricular volume in schizotypal personality disorder". The American Journal of Psychiatry.
155. (April 2013). "Globally and locally reduced MRI gray matter volumes in neuroleptic-naive men with schizotypal personality disorder: association with negative symptoms". JAMA Psychiatry.
156. (December 2003). "An MRI study of superior temporal gyrus volume in women with schizotypal personality disorder". The American Journal of Psychiatry.
157. (September 2002). "Smaller left Heschl's gyrus volume in patients with schizotypal personality disorder". The American Journal of Psychiatry.
158. (November 2003). "A MRI study of fusiform gyrus in schizotypal personality disorder". Schizophrenia Research.
159. (January 2015). "White matter abnormalities in schizophrenia and schizotypal personality disorder". Schizophrenia Bulletin.
160. (2002). "The brain in schizotypal personality disorder: a review of structural MRI and CT findings". Harvard Review of Psychiatry.
161. (July 2009). "Smaller superior temporal gyrus volume specificity in schizotypal personality disorder". Schizophrenia Research.
162. (February 2020). "Reduced Cortical Thickness in Schizophrenia and Schizotypal Disorder". Schizophrenia Bulletin.
163. (April 2013). "Biological Advances in Personality Disorders". FOCUS.
164. (November 2012). "Anterior limb of the internal capsule in schizotypal personality disorder: fiber-tract counting, volume, and anisotropy". Schizophrenia Research.
165. (April 2004). "Volume reduction of the right anterior limb of the internal capsule in patients with schizotypal disorder". Psychiatry Research.
166. (February 2012). "A review of structural MRI and diffusion tensor imaging in schizotypal personality disorder". Current Psychiatry Reports.
167. (April 2011). "Cingulate and temporal lobe fractional anisotropy in schizotypal personality disorder". NeuroImage.
168. (February 2007). "The uncinate fasciculus and extraversion in schizotypal personality disorder: a diffusion tensor imaging study". Schizophrenia Research.
169. (April 2011). "Neural correlates of reality monitoring during adolescence". NeuroImage.
170. (2016). "Characterization of the Fiber Connectivity Profile of the Cerebral Cortex in Schizotypal Personality Disorder: A Pilot Study". Frontiers in Psychology.
171. (January 2020). "Increased brain gyrification in the schizophrenia spectrum". Psychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences.
172. (April 2008). "Cortical gray and white matter volume in unmedicated schizotypal and schizophrenia patients". Schizophrenia Research.
173. (May 2017). "Brain-derived neurotrophic factor Val66Met genotype modulates amygdala habituation". Psychiatry Research: Neuroimaging.
174. (October 2017). "Dissociation of Brain Activation in Autism and Schizotypal Personality Disorder During Social Judgments". Schizophrenia Bulletin.
175. (January 2013). "Larger putamen size in antipsychotic-naïve individuals with schizotypal personality disorder". Schizophrenia Research.
176. (May 2013). "Pituitary volume in schizophrenia spectrum disorders". Schizophrenia Research.
177. (May 2002). "Neurobiological measures of schizotypal personality disorder: defining an inhibitory endophenotype?". The American Journal of Psychiatry.
178. (September 2003). "Deficient attentional modulation of the startle response in patients with schizotypal personality disorder". The American Journal of Psychiatry.
179. (October 2000). "Modulation of the startle response and startle laterality in relatives of schizophrenic patients and in subjects with schizotypal personality disorder: evidence of inhibitory deficits". The American Journal of Psychiatry.
180. (December 1993). "Impaired startle prepulse inhibition and habituation in patients with schizotypal personality disorder". The American Journal of Psychiatry.
181. (January 1993). "CSF homovanillic acid in schizotypal personality disorder". The American Journal of Psychiatry.
182. (April 1998). "MRI study of cavum septi pellucidi in schizophrenia, affective disorder, and schizotypal personality disorder". The American Journal of Psychiatry.
183. (May 2012). "Early cannabis use and schizotypal personality disorder symptoms from adolescence to middle adulthood". Schizophrenia Research.
184. (December 2013). "Association between cannabis use, psychosis, and schizotypal personality disorder: findings from the National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions". Schizophrenia Research.
185. (July 2018). "Association of Substance Use Disorders With Conversion From Schizotypal Disorder to Schizophrenia". JAMA Psychiatry.
186. (March 2011). "Cannabis users differ from non-users on measures of personality and schizotypy". Psychiatry Research.
187. (December 2021). "Early life factors of schizotypal personality disorder in adolescents: A systematic review". Journal of Psychiatric and Mental Health Nursing.
188. Deidre M. Anglina, Patricia R. Cohenab, Henian Chena (2008) Duration of early maternal separation and prediction of schizotypal symptoms from early adolescence to midlife, Schizophrenia Research Volume 103, Issue 1, Pages 143–150 (August 2008)
189. Howard Berenbaum, Ph.D., Eve M. Valera, Ph.D. and John G. Kerns, Ph.D. (2003) Psychological Trauma and Schizotypal Symptoms, Oxford Journals, Medicine, Schizophrenia Bulletin Volume 29, Number 1 Pp. 143–152
190. (March 2011). "Longitudinal study of stressful life events and daily stressors among adolescents at high risk for psychotic disorders". Schizophrenia Bulletin.
191. (October 2017). "The mediating effects of childhood neglect on the association between schizotypal and autistic personality traits and depression in a non-clinical sample". BMC Psychiatry.
192. (August 2008). "Duration of early maternal separation and prediction of schizotypal symptoms from early adolescence to midlife". Schizophrenia Research.
193. (August 2008). "Psychological trauma and schizotypal personality disorder". Journal of Abnormal Psychology.
194. (November 2010). "Childhood adversity, mental disorder comorbidity, and suicidal behavior in schizotypal personality disorder". The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease.
195. (July 2011). "Heritability and longitudinal stability of schizotypal traits during adolescence". Behavior Genetics.
196. (2018-03-01). "Developmental Aspects of Schizotypy and Suspiciousness: a Review". Current Behavioral Neuroscience Reports.
197. (March 2021). "The Schizotypal Personality Questionnaire for Children (SPQ-C): Factor Structure, Child Abuse, and Family History of Schizotypy". Schizophrenia Bulletin.
198. (2003). "Psychological trauma and schizotypal symptoms". Schizophrenia Bulletin.
199. (August 2022). "Does childhood trauma predict schizotypal traits? A path modelling approach in a cohort of help-seeking subjects". European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience.
200. (2011-07-01). "The differential effects of child abuse and posttraumatic stress disorder on schizotypal personality disorder". Comprehensive Psychiatry.
201. (2008). "Socioeconomic background and the developmental course of schizotypal and borderline personality disorder symptoms". Development and Psychopathology.
202. (July 2019). "Severe childhood trauma and clinical and neurocognitive features in schizotypal personality disorder". Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica.
203. Mayo Clinic Staff. "Schizotypal personality disorder". Mayo Clinic.
204. (December 2010). "Cluster A Personality Disorders: Schizotypal, Schizoid and Paranoid Personality Disorders in Childhood and Adolescence". Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment.
205. (1997). "Childhood behavior precursors of schizotypal personality disorder". Schizophrenia Bulletin.
206. (March 2002). "Adult schizotypal personality characteristics and prenatal influenza in a Finnish birth cohort". Schizophrenia Research.
207. (2022). "Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders: DSM-5-TR". American Psychiatric Association Publishing.
208. (2022). "Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders: DSM-5-TR™". American Psychiatric Association Publishing.
209. (2015-01-01). "A dimensional approach to assessing personality functioning: examining personality trait domains utilizing DSM-IV personality disorder criteria". Comprehensive Psychiatry.
210. (2019-08-13). "A Brief but Comprehensive Review of Research on the Alternative DSM-5 Model for Personality Disorders". Current Psychiatry Reports.
211. (2013). "Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders: DSM-5". American Psychiatric Association.
212. Clark, Lee Anna. (2025-05-01). "Wherefrom and Whither PD? Recent Developments and Future Possibilities in DSM-5 and ICD-11 Personality Disorder Diagnosis". Current Psychiatry Reports.
213. (2018-10-03). "Diagnosis and treatment of schizotypal personality disorder: evidence from a systematic review". npj Schizophrenia.
214. (2018-10-29). "Application of the ICD-11 classification of personality disorders". BMC Psychiatry.
215. (2018-10-29). "Application of the ICD-11 classification of personality disorders". BMC Psychiatry.
216. "Schizotypal Personality Disorder (STPD) - Psychiatric Disorders".
217. (2015-01-06). "The Melbourne assessment of Schizotypy in kids: a useful measure of childhood schizotypal personality disorder". BioMed Research International.
218. (December 2002). "Short-term diagnostic stability of schizotypal, borderline, avoidant, and obsessive-compulsive personality disorders". The American Journal of Psychiatry.
219. (2013). "Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders: DSM-5". American Psychiatric Association, American Psychiatric Association.
220. American Psychiatric Association, ed. (2022). ''Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders: DSM-5-TR'' (Fifth edition, text revision ed.). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association Publishing. pp. 66-67, 747. {{ISBN. 978-0-89042-575-6.
221. Frances, Allen. (2013). "Essentials of psychiatric diagnosis: responding to the challenge of DSM-5". The Guilford Press.
222. (2013). "Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders: DSM-5". American psychiatric association.
223. (March 2015). "The role of schizotypy in the study of the etiology of schizophrenia spectrum disorders". Schizophrenia Bulletin.
224. (1991). "The SPQ: a scale for the assessment of schizotypal personality based on DSM-III-R criteria". Schizophrenia Bulletin.
225. (May 2018). "Development and public release of a computerized adaptive (CAT) version of the Schizotypal Personality Questionnaire". Psychiatry Research.
226. (2011). "Brief assessment of schizotypy: Developing short forms of the Wisconsin Schizotypy Scales". Personality and Individual Differences.
227. ''[http://apps.who.int/classifications/icd10/browse/2015/en#/F21 Schizotypal Disorder] {{Webarchive. link. (2015-11-02'' in ICD-10: [https://www.who.int/classifications/icd/en/bluebook.pdf#84 Clinical descriptions and guidelines.] {{Webarchive). link. (2014-03-23)
228. (October 2014). "Comparing the factor structure of the Wisconsin Schizotypy Scales and the Schizotypal Personality Questionnaire". Personality Disorders.
229. (2023-03-28). "Protocol for the development and testing of the schiZotypy Autism Questionnaire (ZAQ) in adults: a new screening tool to discriminate autism spectrum disorder from schizotypal disorder". Springer Science and Business Media LLC.
230. (2019-05-03). "Self-Disorders in Asperger Syndrome Compared to Schizotypal Disorder: A Clinical Study". [[Oxford University Press]].
231. (2004). "Personality disorders in modern life". Wiley.
232. The Millon Personality Group. (8 March 2017). "Eccentric/Schizotypal Personality".
233. (1986). "The DSM-III Distinction between Schizoid and Avoidant Personality Disorders". SAGE Publications.
234. (2011). "Psychoanalytic Diagnosis: Understanding Personality Structure in the Clinical Process". The Guilford Press.
235. (2017). "Psychodynamic Diagnostic Manual". The Guilford Press.
236. (September 2020). "A Dual Therapeutic Setting Model Experience for Schizotypal Personality Disorder in an Inpatient Unit". Psychiatria Danubina.
237. (April 2012). "Auditory steady state response in the schizophrenia, first-degree relatives, and schizotypal personality disorder". Schizophrenia Research.
238. (March 2010). "Antipsychotic side-effect - potential risk of patients rejecting their treatments". Psychiatria Danubina.
239. (2001). "Handbook of personality disorders: theory, research, and treatment". Guilford Press.
240. (November 2004). "Efficacy and tolerability of olanzapine in the treatment of schizotypal personality disorder". Schizophrenia Research.
241. (August 2009). "The effects of risperidone on the cognitive performance of individuals with schizotypal personality disorder". Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology.
242. (October 2018). "Diagnosis and treatment of schizotypal personality disorder: evidence from a systematic review". npj Schizophrenia.
243. (April 2017). "Antipsychotic treatment of schizotypy and schizotypal personality disorder: a systematic review". Journal of Psychopharmacology.
244. (2017-05-01). "Treatment of Personality Disorders". American Psychiatric Association Publishing.
245. (August 1991). "Fluoxetine in the treatment of borderline and schizotypal personality disorders". The American Journal of Psychiatry.
246. (October 2017). "A 20-Year multi-followup longitudinal study assessing whether antipsychotic medications contribute to work functioning in schizophrenia". Psychiatry Research.
247. (March 2016). "Review of pharmacologic treatment in cluster A personality disorders". The Mental Health Clinician.
248. (May 2010). "Pergolide treatment of cognitive deficits associated with schizotypal personality disorder: continued evidence of the importance of the dopamine system in the schizophrenia spectrum". Neuropsychopharmacology.
249. (2014-12-01). "Remediation and Cognitive Enhancers in Schizotypal Personality Disorder". Current Treatment Options in Psychiatry.
250. (April 2019). "Guanfacine Augmentation of a Combined Intervention of Computerized Cognitive Remediation Therapy and Social Skills Training for Schizotypal Personality Disorder". The American Journal of Psychiatry.
251. (May 2007). "The effects of guanfacine on context processing abnormalities in schizotypal personality disorder". Biological Psychiatry.
252. (March 2012). "Guanfacine for the treatment of cognitive disorders: a century of discoveries at Yale". The Yale Journal of Biology and Medicine.
253. (January 2015). "Effects of the D1 dopamine receptor agonist dihydrexidine (DAR-0100A) on working memory in schizotypal personality disorder". Neuropsychopharmacology.
254. (January 2017). "Novel Dopamine Therapeutics for Cognitive Deficits in Schizophrenia". Biological Psychiatry.
255. (2019). "T38. Dopamine Enhancement of Verbal Learning in the Schizophrenia Spectrum". Schizophrenia Bulletin.
256. (April 2019). "Cognitive Remediation and Social Skills Training for Schizotypal Personality Disorder: Greater Gains With Guanfacine?". The American Journal of Psychiatry.
257. (2017-03-01). "SA25. Guanfacine Augmentation of Cognitive Remediation Therapy in the Schizophrenia Spectrum: Prospects for Improving Cognitive Performance and Functional Skills". Schizophrenia Bulletin.
258. (2014-05-05). "Paranoid, Schizotypal, and Schizoid Personality Disorders". American Psychiatric Publishing.
259. (2019-01-18). "Guanfacine Augmentation of a Combined Intervention of Computerized Cognitive Remediation Therapy and Social Skills Training for Schizotypal Personality Disorder". American Journal of Psychiatry.
260. (2023). "A Dimensional Approach to Schizotypy".
261. (2023-02-20). "A pilot randomized controlled trial comparing a novel compassion and metacognition approach for schizotypal personality disorder with a combination of cognitive therapy and psychopharmacological treatment". BMC Psychiatry.
262. (2024-04-17). "Metacognition as a Transdiagnostic Determinant of Recovery in Schizotypy and Schizophrenia Spectrum Disorders". Behavioral Sciences.
263. (August 2022). "Face Your Fears: Virtual reality-based cognitive behavioral therapy (VR-CBT) versus standard CBT for paranoid ideations in patients with schizophrenia spectrum disorders: a randomized clinical trial". Trials.
264. (2013). "The Treatment of Adolescents With Schizotypal Personality Disorder and Related Conditions: A Practice-Oriented Review of the Literature". Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice.
265. (September 2003). "Effects of environmental enrichment at ages 3-5 years on schizotypal personality and antisocial behavior at ages 17 and 23 years". The American Journal of Psychiatry.
266. (2005). "The American Psychiatric Publishing textbook of personality disorders". American Psychiatric Pub.
267. (1992). "Schizophrenia spectrum disorders". Review of Psychiatry.
268. {{Cite encyclopedia. (2019-01-25)
269. (October 2004). "Two-year stability and change of schizotypal, borderline, avoidant, and obsessive-compulsive personality disorders". Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology.
270. (May 2005). "Two-year prevalence and stability of individual DSM-IV criteria for schizotypal, borderline, avoidant, and obsessive-compulsive personality disorders: toward a hybrid model of axis II disorders". The American Journal of Psychiatry.
271. Baer, Lee. (1986-03-01). "Coexistent Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder and Schizotypal Personality Disorder: A Poor Prognostic Indicator". Archives of General Psychiatry.
272. (2019-12-05). "A diagnostic classification version of Schizotypal Personality Questionnaire using diagnostic classification models". International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research.
273. (April 2005). "A comparative profile analysis of neuropsychological function in men and women with schizotypal personality disorder". Schizophrenia Research.
274. (December 2009). "Dichotic listening in schizotypal personality disorder: evidence for gender and laterality effects". Schizophrenia Research.
275. (October 2009). "Effect of age and gender on schizotypal personality traits in the normal population". Psychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences.
276. (2007). "Elevated social Internet use and schizotypal personality disorder in adolescents". Schizophrenia Research.
277. (March 2013). "Functional outcomes, functional capacity, and cognitive impairment in schizotypal personality disorder". Schizophrenia Research.
278. (February 2002). "Functional impairment in patients with schizotypal, borderline, avoidant, or obsessive-compulsive personality disorder". The American Journal of Psychiatry.
279. (2017-04-01). "Course of illness in a sample of patients diagnosed with a schizotypal disorder and treated in a specialized early intervention setting. Findings from the 3.5 year follow-up of the OPUS II study". Schizophrenia Research.
280. (2025-06-01). "Transition from schizotypal disorder to non-affective psychotic disorders including schizophrenia: A nationwide Swedish cohort study". Psychiatry Research.
281. (2009-04-16). "Prevalence, correlates, disability, and comorbidity of DSM-IV schizotypal personality disorder: results from the wave 2 national epidemiologic survey on alcohol and related conditions". Primary Care Companion to the Journal of Clinical Psychiatry.
282. (December 2008). "Personality disorders in homeless drop-in center clients". Journal of Personality Disorders.
283. Быкова А. Ю., Беккер Р. А., Быков Ю. В. О трудностях дифференциальной диагностики между первичным деперсонализационно-дереализационным расстройством и шизотипическим расстройством // Siberian Journal of Life Sciences & Agriculture. — 2022. — Т. 14. — №. 1.
284. (2020-01-01). "Schizotypal Disorder in Children—A Neglected Diagnosis". Schizophrenia Bulletin Open.
285. (2018-10-03). "Diagnosis and treatment of schizotypal personality disorder: evidence from a systematic review". npj Schizophrenia.
286. (October 2008). "Predictors of remission, schizophrenia, and bipolar disorder in adolescents with brief psychotic disorder or psychotic disorder not otherwise specified considered at very high risk for schizophrenia". Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychopharmacology.
287. (2009). "Prevalence, correlates, disability, and comorbidity of DSM-IV schizotypal personality disorder: results from the wave 2 national epidemiologic survey on alcohol and related conditions". Primary Care Companion to the Journal of Clinical Psychiatry.
288. (2002). "Comprehensive handbook of psychopathology". Kluwer Academic.
289. (2019). "Comorbidity of Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder and Schizotypal Personality Disorder: Clinical Response and Treatment Resistance to Pharmacotherapy in a 3-Year Follow-Up Naturalistic Study". Frontiers in Psychiatry.
290. (2008). "Essential psychiatry". Cambridge University Press.
291. (October 2021). "Schizotypal personality disorder in clinical obsessive-compulsive disorder samples: a brief overview". CNS Spectrums.
292. (2008). "When 'entities' are as intrusive as obsessions: A case study of the co-occurrence of obsessive–compulsive disorder and schizotypal personality disorder diagnoses". Personality and Mental Health.
293. (December 2007). "Schizotypal personality traits in Gilles de la Tourette syndrome". Acta Neurologica Scandinavica.
294. (2008). "Psychiatry". Wiley-Blackwell.
295. (2004). "Schizophrenia: etiology and course". Annual Reviews.
296. (2006). "Schizotypal personality: neurodevelopmental and psychosocial trajectories". Annual Review of Clinical Psychology.
297. (April 2004). "Neuropsychological profile in patients with schizotypal personality disorder or schizophrenia". SAGE Publications.
298. (December 2004). "Cingulate gyrus volume and metabolism in the schizophrenia spectrum". Schizophrenia Research.
299. (2014). "DSM-IV schizotypal personality disorder: a taxometric analysis among individuals with and without substance use disorders in the general population". Mental Health and Substance Use.
300. (October 2007). "Why dissociation and schizotypy overlap: the joint influence of fantasy proneness, cognitive failures, and childhood trauma". The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease.
301. Šram, Zlatko. (2018). "Childhood Trauma, the Occult, Dissociative Identity Disorder, and Schizotypal Personality Disorder: Relations on a Sample of Psychiatric Outpatients".
302. (2008). "Psychosis, Trauma and Dissociation".
303. (July 16, 2014). "Schizotypal Personality Disorder: A Current Review". Current Psychiatry Reports.
304. (1979). "Justification for Separating Schizotypal and Borderline Personality Disorders". Schizophrenia Bulletin.
305. (May 1983). "The search for a schizotypal personality: Historical origins and current status". Comprehensive Psychiatry.
306. (31 Jan 2011). "Schizotypal Personality Disorder: A Review of Its Current Status". Journal of Personality Disorders.