Russian alphabet

History

Russian alphabet is derived from the Cyrillic script, which was invented in the 9th century to capture accurately the phonology of the first Slavic literary language, Old Church Slavonic. The early Cyrillic alphabet was adapted to Old East Slavic from Old Church Slavonic and was used in Kievan Rus' from the 10th century onward to write what would become the modern Russian language. The last major reform of Russian orthography took place in 1917–1918.

Letters

: An alternative form of the letter De (Д д) closely resembles the Greek letter delta (Δ δ). : An alternative form of the letter El (Л л) closely resembles the Greek letter lambda (Λ λ).

Historic letters

Letters eliminated in 1917–18

Main article: Reforms of Russian orthography#The post-revolution reform

• і — Identical in pronunciation to , it was used exclusively immediately before other vowels and the ("Short I") (for example, , 'patriarch') and in the word ('world') and its derivatives, to distinguish it from the word ('peace') (the two words are actually etymologically cognate and not arbitrarily homonyms).
• ѣ — Originally had a distinct sound, but by the middle of the eighteenth century, it had become identical in pronunciation to in the standard language. Since its elimination in 1918, it has remained a political symbol of the old orthography.
• ѳ — From the Greek theta, it was identical to in pronunciation, but it was used etymologically (for example, "Theodore" became "Fyodor").
• ѵ — From the Greek upsilon, usually identical to in pronunciation, as in Byzantine Greek, it was used etymologically for Greek loanwords, like Latin Y (as in synod, myrrh); by 1918, it had become very rare. In spellings of the eighteenth century, it was also used after some vowels, where it has since been replaced with or (rarely) . For example, a Greek prefix originally spelled (equivalent to English ) is now spelled in most cases and as a component in some compound words.

19th century Russian alphabet (Körner).jpg|(Körner, 1895) 19th century Russian alphabet (Motti).jpg|(Motti, 1890) 19th century Russian alphabet (Fuchs).jpg|(Fuchs, 1888) 19th century Russian alphabet (Moser).jpg|(Moser, 1888) 19th century Russian alphabet (Reiff).jpg|(Reiff, 1883) 19th century Russian alphabet (Boltz).jpg|(Boltz, 1880)

Letters eliminated before 1750

• corresponded to a more archaic pronunciation, already absent in East Slavic at the start of the historical period, but kept by tradition in certain words until the eighteenth century in secular writing and in Church Slavonic and Macedonian to the present day.
• and derived from Greek letters xi and psi. It was used etymologically, though inconsistently, in secular writing until the eighteenth century and more consistently to the present day in Church Slavonic.
• is the Greek letter omega, identical in pronunciation to . It was used in secular writing until the eighteenth century, but in the present day in Church Slavonic, it was mostly used to distinguish inflexional forms otherwise written identically.
• Two "yuses", "big" and "small" , used to stand for nasalized vowels and . According to linguistic reconstruction, both became irrelevant for East Slavic phonology at the beginning of the historical period but were introduced along with the rest of the Cyrillic script. The iotated yuses, and , had largely vanished by the twelfth century. The uniotated continued to be used, etymologically, until the sixteenth century. Thereafter it was restricted to being a dominical letter in the Paschal tables. The seventeenth-century usage of and survives in contemporary Church Slavonic, and the sounds (but not the letters) in Polish.
• The letter was adapted to represent the iotated in the middle or end of a word; the modern letter is an adaptation of its cursive form of the seventeenth century, enshrined by the typographical reform of 1708.
• Until 1708, the iotated was written at the beginning of a word. This distinction between and survives in Church Slavonic.

Although it is usually stated that the letters in the table above were eliminated in the typographical reform of 1708, reality is somewhat more complex. The letters were indeed originally omitted from the sample alphabet, printed in a western-style serif font, presented in Peter edict, along with the letters (replaced by ), and (the diacriticized letter was also removed), but were reinstated except and under pressure from the Russian Orthodox Church in a later variant of the modern typeface (1710). Nonetheless, since 1735, the Russian Academy of Sciences began to use fonts without , and ; however, was sometimes used again since 1758.

Although praised by Western scholars and philosophers, it was criticized by clergy and many conservative scholars, who found the new standard too "Russified". Some even went as far as to refer to Peter as the Anti-Christ.

Consonants

Most consonants can represent both "soft" (palatalized, represented in the IPA with a ) and "hard" consonant phonemes. If consonant letters are followed by vowel letters, the soft/hard quality of the consonant depends on whether the vowel is meant to follow "hard" consonants or "soft" consonants . A soft sign indicates palatalization of the preceding consonant without adding a vowel.

However, in modern Russian, six consonant phonemes do not have phonemically distinct "soft" and "hard" variants (except in foreign proper names) and do not change "softness" in the presence of other letters: , and are always hard; , and are always soft. (Before 1950, Russian linguists considered a semivowel rather than a consonant.)

Vowels

The Russian alphabet contains 10 vowel letters. They are grouped into soft and hard vowels. The soft vowels, , either indicate a preceding palatalized consonant, or (with the exception of ) are iotated (pronounced with a preceding ) in all other cases. The IPA vowels shown are a guideline only and sometimes are realized as different sounds, particularly when unstressed. However, may be used in words of foreign origin without palatalization (), and is often realized as between soft consonants, such as in мяч ('toy ball').

Individual vowels

is an old Proto-Slavic close central vowel, thought to have been preserved better in modern Russian than in other Slavic languages. It was originally nasalized in certain positions: Old Russian камы ; Modern Russian камень ('rock'). Its written form developed as follows: + → → .

was introduced in 1708 to distinguish the non-iotated/non-palatalizing from the iotated/palatalizing one. The original usage had been for the uniotated , or for the iotated, but had dropped out of use by the sixteenth century. In native Russian words, is found only at the beginnings of a few words э́тот/э́та/э́то 'this (is) (m./f./n.)', э́ти 'these', э́кий 'what a', э́дак/э́так 'that way', э́дакий/э́такий 'sort of', and interjections like эй 'hey') or in compound words (e.g., поэ́тому 'therefore' = по + этому, where этому is the dative case of этот). In words that come from foreign languages in which iotated is uncommon or nonexistent (such as English), is usually written in the beginning of words and after vowels except (e.g., поэ́т, 'poet'), and after and consonants. However, the pronunciation is inconsistent. Many of these borrowed words, especially monosyllables, words ending in and many words where follows , , , , or , are pronounced with without palatalization or iotation: секс (seks — 'sex'), моде́ль (*model''' — 'model'), кафе́ (kafe — 'café'), прое́кт (proekt — 'project'; here, the spelling is etymological: German Projekt was adopted from Latin proiectum, so the word is spelled with to reflect the original and not with as usual after vowels; but the pronunciation is counter-etymological: a hypercorrection that has become standard). But many other words are pronounced with : се́кта (syekta — 'sect'), дебю́т (*dyebyut'' — 'debut').

Proper names are sometimes written with after consonants: Сэм — 'Sam', Мэ́ри — 'Mary', Ма́о Цзэду́н — 'Mao Zedong'; the use of after consonants is common in East Asian names and in English names with the sounds and , with some exceptions such as Джек ('Jack') and Ше́ннон ('Shannon'), since both and , in cases of же ("zhe"), ше ("she") and це ("tse"), follow consonants that are always hard (non-palatalized), yet usually prevails in writing. However, English names with the sounds , (if spelled in English) and after consonants are normally spelled with in Russian: Бе́тти — 'Betty', Пи́тер — 'Peter', Лейк-Плэ́сид — 'Lake Placid'. Pronunciation mostly remains unpalatalized, so Пи́тер — Russian rendering of the English name 'Peter' is pronounced differently from Пи́тер — is a colloquial Russian name of Saint Petersburg.

, introduced by Karamzin in 1797 and made official in 1943 by the Soviet Ministry of Education, marks a sound that historically developed from stressed . The written letter is optional; it is formally correct to write for both and . None of the several attempts in the twentieth century to mandate the use of have stuck.

Non-vocalized letters

Hard sign

The hard sign () acts like a "silent back vowel" that separates a succeeding "soft vowel" (, but not ) from a preceding consonant, invoking implicit iotation of the vowel with a distinct glide. Today it is used mostly to separate a prefix ending with a hard consonant from the following root. Its original pronunciation, lost by 1400 at the latest, was that of a very short middle schwa-like sound, likely pronounced or . Until the 1918 reform, no written word could end in a consonant: those that end in a "hard" consonant in modern orthography then had a final .

While is also a soft vowel, root-initial following a hard consonant is typically pronounced as . This is normally spelled (the hard counterpart to ) unless this vowel occurs at the beginning of a word, in which case it remains . An alternation between the two letters (but not the sounds) can be seen with the pair без и́мени ('without name', which is pronounced ) and безымя́нный ('nameless', which is pronounced ). This spelling convention, however, is not applied with certain loaned prefixes such as in the word панислами́зм — , 'Pan-Islamism') and compound words (e.g., госизме́на — , 'high treason').

Soft sign

The soft sign, , in most positions acts like a "silent front vowel" and indicates that the preceding consonant is palatalized (except for always-hard ж, ш, ц) and the following vowel (if present) is iotated (including in loans). This is important as palatalization is phonemic in Russian. For example, брат ('brother') contrasts with брать ('to take'). The original pronunciation of the soft sign, lost by 1400 at the latest, was that of a very short fronted reduced vowel but likely pronounced or . There are still some remnants of this ancient reading in modern Russian, e.g., in co-existing versions of the same name, read and written differently, such as Марья and Мария ('Mary').

When applied after stem-final always-soft (ч, щ, but not й) or always-hard (ж, ш, but not ц) consonants, the soft sign does not alter pronunciation, but has grammatical significance:

• the feminine marker for singular nouns in the nominative and accusative; e.g., тушь ('India ink', feminine) cf. туш ('flourish after a toast', masculine) — both pronounced ;
• the imperative mood for some verbs;
• the infinitives of some verbs (with -чь ending);
• the second person for non-past verbs (with -шь ending); and
• some adverbs and particles.

Treatment of foreign sounds

Because Russian borrows terms from other languages, there are various conventions for sounds not present in Russian. For example, while Russian has no , there are a number of common words (particularly proper nouns) borrowed from languages like English and German that contain such a sound in the original language. In well-established terms, such as галлюцинация ('hallucination'), this is written with and pronounced with , while newer terms use , pronounced with , such as хобби ('hobby'). Similarly, words originally with in their source language are either pronounced with , as in the name Тельма ('Thelma') or, if borrowed early enough, with or , as in the names Фёдор ('Theodore') and Матве́й ('Matthew').

For the affricate, which is common in the Asian countries that were part of the Russian Empire and the USSR, the letter combination is used: this is often transliterated into English either as or the Dutch form .

Numeric values

The numerical values correspond to the Greek numerals, with being used for digamma, for koppa, and for sampi. The system was abandoned for secular purposes in 1708, after a transitional period of a century or so; it continues to be used in Church Slavonic, while general Russian texts use Indo-Arabic numerals and Roman numerals.

Diacritics

The Cyrillic alphabet and Russian spelling generally employ fewer diacritics than those used in other European languages written with the Latin alphabet. The only diacritic, in the proper sense, is the acute accent (Russian: знак ударения 'mark of stress'), which marks stress on a vowel, as it is done in Spanish and Greek. (Unicode has no code points for the accented letters; they are instead produced by suffixing the unaccented letter with .) Although Russian word stress is often unpredictable and can fall on different syllables in different forms of the same word, the diacritic accent is used only in dictionaries, children's books, resources for foreign-language learners, the defining entry (in bold) in articles on Russian Wikipedia, or on minimal pairs distinguished only by stress (for instance, за́мок 'castle' vs. замо́к 'lock'). Rarely, it is also used to specify the stress in uncommon foreign words, and in poems with unusual stress used to fit the meter.

The letter is a special variant of the letter , which is not always distinguished in written Russian, but the umlaut-like sign has no other uses. Stress on this letter is never marked with a diacritic, as it is always stressed (except in some compounds and loanwords).

Both and the letter have completely separated from and . has been used since the 16th century (except that it was removed in 1708, but reinstated in 1735). Since then, its usage has been mandatory. It was formerly considered a diacriticized letter, but in the 20th century, it came to be considered a separate letter of the Russian alphabet. It was classified as a "semivowel" by 19th- and 20th-century grammarians, but since the 1970s, it has been considered a consonant letter.

Frequency

The frequency of characters in a corpus of written Russian was found to be as follows:

Keyboard layout

Microsoft Windows keyboard layout for personal computers is as follows:

:[[File:KB Russian.svg|540px|Russian keyboard layout]]

However, there are several variations of so-called "phonetic keyboards" that are often used by non-Russians, where pressing an English letter key will type the Russian letter with a similar sound (A → А, S → С, D → Д, F → Ф, etc.).

Letter names

Until approximately the year 1900, mnemonic names inherited from Church Slavonic were used for the letters. They are given here in the pre-1918 orthography of the post-1708 civil alphabet.

The Russian poet Alexander Pushkin wrote: "The [names of the] letters that make up the Slavonic alphabet don't represent a meaning at all. Аз, буки, веди, глаголь, добро etc. are individual words, chosen just for their initial sound". However, since the names of the first few letters of the Slavonic alphabet seem to form readable text, attempts have been made to compose meaningful snippets of text from groups of consecutive letters for the rest of the alphabet.{{cite book

Notes

References

Bibliography

• Ivan G. Iliev. "Kurze Geschichte des kyrillischen Alphabets". Plovdiv. 2015.
• Ivan G. Iliev. "Short History of the Cyrillic Alphabet".
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References

1. Himelfarb, Elizabeth J. "First Alphabet Found in Egypt", Archaeology 53, Issue 1 (Jan./Feb. 2000): 21.
2. (12 October 2017). "Learning to Read across Languages and Writing Systems". Cambridge University Press.
3. {{Citation. Ushakov. Dmitry. Yandex. link
4. {{Citation. Yandex. link. Ushakov. Dmitry
5. Vasmer. "Dictionary".
6. "ФЭБ". feb-web.ru.
7. (1 October 2019). "The Russian Spelling Reform of 1917/18 - Part I (History)".
8. Russian language course "Russo Sem Mestre" (Portuguese for ''Russian without Master''), by Custódio Gomes Sobrinho
9. Russian language course "Russo Sem Mestre" (Portuguese for ''Russian without Master''), by Custódio Gomes Sobrinho
10. See Polish Maria as a given name but Maryja in context of the Virgin Mary.
11. "Буквы Ъ и Ь - "Грамота.ру" – справочно-информационный Интернет-портал "Русский язык"". gramota.ru.
12. Kiparsky, V.. (1959). "Foreign h in Russian". The Slavonic and East European Review.
13. Trost, Stefan. "Alphabet and Character Frequency: Russian (Русский)".