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Prostasomes

Prostasomes are extracellular vesicles (40-500 nm in diameter) secreted by the prostate gland epithelial cells into seminal fluid. They possess an unusual lipid composition and a tight and highly ordered structure of their lipid bilayer membrane, resembling that of lipid raft domains. Prostasomes appear to improve sperm motility and protect against attacks from the female immune defense during the passage to the egg.

The name prostasomes was coined in the early 1980s by combining the terms "prosta"=prostate and "soma" (Greek for "body"). Around this time, the first functional studies of prostasomes were also performed.

Cancerous prostate cells and prostate cells with low differentiation continue to produce and secrete prostasomes. Possibly, the high incidence of prostate cancer in elderly men could be due to the immunomodulatory properties of prostasomes, protecting the cancer from attack by the immune system.

Fusion of prostasomes with the sperm plasma membrane is required for regulation of different aspects of sperm function, such as motility and capacitation. Prostasomes have also been implicated in the interaction between prostatic cancer cells and their microenvironment.

Immune regulating proteins found in prostasomes include: amino-peptidase N (CD13); dipeptidyl-peptidase IV (CD26); enkephalinase (neutral endopeptidase, CD10); angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE, CD143); tissue factor TF (CD142, thromboplastin); decay accelerating factor (CD55); protectin (CD59, inhibitor of MAC) and complement regulatory membrane cofactor protein (CD46). Prostasomes also contain high levels of the divalent cations: Zn2+, Ca2+ and Mg2+.

Historical background of prostasome research

Year
1977-78
1981
1983
1984
1986-89
1989
1990
1991-94
1995-2001
2001
2003
2005
2009-
2009-
2015

References

References

  1. (September 1985). "The prostasome: its secretion and function in man". Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - Reviews on Biomembranes.
  2. (2006). "Prostasomes--their effects on human male reproduction and fertility". Human Reproduction Update.
  3. (February 1982). "A biochemical and ultrastructural study on the endogenous protein kinase activity of secretory granule membranes of prostatic origin in human seminal plasma". Journal of Ultrastructure Research.
  4. (1982). "Stimulation of sperm progressive motility by organelles in human seminal plasma". Scandinavian Journal of Urology and Nephrology.
  5. (1982). "Distribution of cyclic AMP in human seminal plasma and its relation to sperm progressive motility". Scandinavian Journal of Urology and Nephrology.
  6. (1982). "Promotive effect on human sperm progressive motility by prostasomes". Urological Research.
  7. (1982). "Calcium, magnesium, and zinc contents in organelles of prostatic origin in human seminal plasma". Scandinavian Journal of Urology and Nephrology.
  8. (2004). "The Janus-faced nature of prostasomes: their pluripotency favours the normal reproductive process and malignant prostate growth". Prostate Cancer and Prostatic Diseases.
  9. (January 2014). "Prostasomes: extracellular vesicles from the prostate". Reproduction.
  10. (2000). "Growth–Inhibitory Effect of Prostasomes on Prostatic Cancer Cell Lines in Culture". European Urology.
  11. (1997). "Microscopy of Reproduction and Development: A Dynamic Approach". Antonio Delfino Editore.
  12. (2002). "Prostasomes: proceedings from a symposium held at the Wenner-Gren Centre, Stockholm, in June 2001". Portland.
  13. (November 2004). "Prostasomes: a role in prostatic disease?". BJU International.
  14. (August 1977). "Restoration of detergent-inactivated adenosine triphosphatase activity of human prostatic fluid with concanavalin A". Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - Enzymology.
  15. (1978). "An Mg2+ and Ca2+-stimulated adenosine triphosphatase in human prostatic fluid: part I". Andrologia.
  16. (1978). "An Mg2+ and Ca2+-stimulated adenosine triphosphatase in human prostatic fluid--part II". Andrologia.
  17. (1981). "Abnormal deficiency of both Mg2+ and Ca2+-dependent adenosine triphosphatase and secretory granules and vesicles in human seminal plasma". Scandinavian Journal of Urology and Nephrology.
  18. (March 1983). "[Prostasomes--a newly discovered organelle that increases sperm motility]". Läkartidningen.
  19. (1983). "Ultrastructural localization of the prostasome - an organelle in human seminal plasma". Upsala Journal of Medical Sciences.
  20. (1984). "Prostatic origin of fucosyl transferase in human seminal plasma--a study on healthy controls and on men with infertility or with prostatic cancer". Urological Research.
  21. (1986). "Prostasomes in human semen contain ADP and GDP". Acta Europaea Fertilitatis.
  22. (June 1987). "Effect of modulators on prostasome membrane-bound ATPase in human seminal plasma". European Journal of Clinical Investigation.
  23. (1988). "Zinc ion stimulation of ATP cleavage by prostasomes from human seminal plasma". Urologia Internationalis.
  24. (1988). "Prostasome membrane associated enzyme activities and semen parameters in men attending an infertility clinic". Urologia Internationalis.
  25. (September 1989). "Human prostasome membranes exhibit very high cholesterol/phospholipid ratios yielding high molecular ordering". Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - Biomembranes.
  26. (1990). "Nucleic acid association to human prostasomes". Archives of Andrology.
  27. (1990). "Interaction between prostasomes and spermatozoa from human semen". Archives of Andrology.
  28. (December 1991). "Extracellular organelles (prostasomes) are immunosuppressive components of human semen". Clinical and Experimental Immunology.
  29. (September 1992). "Immunosuppression by human seminal plasma--extracellular organelles (prostasomes) modulate activity of phagocytic cells". American Journal of Reproductive Immunology.
  30. (May 1993). "Physiologic relevance of the membrane attack complex inhibitory protein CD59 in human seminal plasma: CD59 is present on extracellular organelles (prostasomes), binds cell membranes, and inhibits complement-mediated lysis". The Journal of Experimental Medicine.
  31. (April 1994). "Expression of a common secretory granule specific protein as a marker for the extracellular organelles (prostasomes) in human semen". Fertility and Sterility.
  32. (1996). "Adherence of human prostasomes to mouse spermatozoa and their displacement by monoclonal antibodies as revealed by free zone electrophoresis". Archives of Andrology.
  33. (1996). "Immunolocalization of prostasomes in the human prostate". Upsala Journal of Medical Sciences.
  34. (May 1998). "Monoclonal antibodies against human prostasomes". The Prostate.
  35. (October 1997). "Prostasome to sperm transfer of CD13/aminopeptidase N (EC 3.4.11.2)". Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - General Subjects.
  36. (August 1997). "Transfer of aminopeptidase activity from prostasomes to sperm". Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - General Subjects.
  37. (July 1997). "Fusion of sperm with prostasomes: effects on membrane fluidity". Archives of Biochemistry and Biophysics.
  38. (June 1997). "Transfer of CD26/dipeptidyl peptidase IV (E.C. 3.5.4.4) from prostasomes to sperm". FEBS Letters.
  39. (January 1997). "Fusion of human sperm to prostasomes at acidic pH". The Journal of Membrane Biology.
  40. (February 1997). "Immunohistochemistry of prostasomes from human semen". The Prostate.
  41. (August 1998). "Prostasome-like particles in stallion semen". Biology of Reproduction.
  42. (November 1998). "Occurrence of prostasome-like membrane vesicles in equine seminal plasma". Journal of Reproduction and Fertility.
  43. (1999). "Expression of prostasome-like granules by the prostate cancer cell lines PC3, Du145 and LnCaP grown in monolayer". Upsala Journal of Medical Sciences.
  44. (April 1999). "Distribution of prostasomes in neoplastic epithelial prostate cells". The Prostate.
  45. (September 2000). "Antibacterial activity of human prostasomes". The Prostate.
  46. (2001). "Autoantibodies to prostasomes as new markers for prostate cancer". Upsala Journal of Medical Sciences.
  47. (July 2003). "Proteomic analysis of human prostasomes". The Prostate.
  48. (February 2009). "Structural heterogeneity and protein composition of exosome-like vesicles (prostasomes) in human semen". The Prostate.
  49. (October 2013). "Prostasomes from four different species are able to produce extracellular adenosine triphosphate (ATP)". Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - General Subjects.
  50. (May 2005). "Does human semen contain a functional haemostatic system? A possible role for Tissue Factor Pathway Inhibitor in fertility through semen liquefaction". Thrombosis and Haemostasis.
  51. (February 2007). "Prothrombotic effects of prostasomes isolated from prostatic cancer cell lines and seminal plasma". Seminars in Thrombosis and Hemostasis.
  52. (March 2007). "Prothrombotic effect of prostasomes of metastatic cell and seminal origin". The Prostate.
  53. (May 2009). "Human prostasomes contain chromosomal DNA". The Prostate.
  54. (December 2012). "Prostasomes are heterogeneous regarding size and appearance but affiliated to one DNA-containing exosome family". The Prostate.
  55. (July 2011). "Prostasomal DNA characterization and transfer into human sperm". Molecular Reproduction and Development.
  56. (May 2011). "Multiple recognition assay reveals prostasomes as promising plasma biomarkers for prostate cancer". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.
  57. (November 2015). "Proteomic Profiling of Detergent Resistant Membranes (Lipid Rafts) of Prostasomes". Molecular & Cellular Proteomics.
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