Pauline epistles

Authenticity

of Pauline epistles ■ Pastoral letters

Main article: Authorship of the Pauline epistles, Pseudepigrapha

In all of these epistles, except the Epistle to the Hebrews, the author and writer does claim to be Paul. The contested letters may have been written using Paul's name, as it was common to attribute at that point in history.

Seven letters (with consensus dates) considered genuine by most scholars:

• Galatians (c. 48 AD)
• First Thessalonians (c. 49–51)
• First Corinthians (c. 53–54)
• Second Corinthians (c. 55–56)
• Romans (c. 55–57)
• Philippians (c. 57–59 or c. 62)
• Philemon (c. 57–59 or c. 62)

The three letters on which scholars are about evenly divided: If these letters are inauthentic, then the consensus dates are probably incorrect.

• Second Thessalonians (c. 51–52)
• Colossians (c. 57–59 or c. 62)
• Ephesians (c. 62)

The letters thought to be pseudepigraphic by many scholars (traditional dating given): The content of these letters strongly suggests they were written a decade or more later than the traditional dates.

• First Timothy (c. 62–64)
• Second Timothy (c. 62–65)
• Titus (c. 66–67)

Finally, Epistle to the Hebrews, although anonymous and not really in the form of a letter, has long been included among Paul's collected letters. Although some churches ascribe Hebrews to Paul, neither most of Christianity nor modern scholarship does so.

Paul's use of secretaries

A number of scholars have argued that from biographic details from Paul, he likely suffered from some physical impediment such as vision loss or damaged hands. Paul explicitly states in multiple epistles that he used secretaries, sometimes mentioned by name, a potential explanation for seemingly non-Pauline epistles. The six disputed epistles are believed by some scholars to have come from followers writing in his name, using material from Paul's surviving letters and letters written by him that no longer survive. Paul used scribal secretaries and may have had a team of readers, which adds layers to how Paul's letters were composed. Candida Moss has argued that enslaved and formerly enslaved secretaries played a significant but overlooked role in the production of early Christian texts such as the Pauline epistles, urging a broader and more ethical recognition of their contributions to authorship beyond traditional assumptions.

Order

In the order they appear in the New Testament, the Pauline epistles are:

This ordering is remarkably consistent in the manuscript tradition, with very few deviations. The evident principle of organization is descending length of the Greek text, but keeping the three pastoral epistles addressed to individuals in a separate final section. The only anomaly is that Galatians precedes the slightly longer Ephesians.

In modern editions, the anonymous Epistle to the Hebrews is placed at the end of Paul's letters and before the general epistles. This practice was popularized through the 4th century Vulgate by Jerome, who was aware of ancient doubts about its authorship, and is also followed in most medieval Byzantine manuscripts with hardly any exceptions.

The placement of Hebrews among the Pauline epistles is less consistent in the manuscripts:

• between Romans and 1 Corinthians (i.e., in order by length without splitting the Epistles to the Corinthians): Papyrus 46 and minuscules 103, 455, 1961, 1964, 1977, 1994.
• between 2 Corinthians and Galatians: minuscules 1930, 1978, and 2248
• between Galatians and Ephesians: implied by the numbering in B. In B, Galatians ends and Ephesians begins on the same side of the same folio (page 1493); similarly 2 Thessalonians ends and Hebrews begins on the same side of the same folio (page 1512).
• between 2 Thessalonians and 1 Timothy (i.e., before the Pastorals): א, A, B, C, H, I, P, 0150, 0151, and about 60 minuscules (e.g. 218, 632)
• after Philemon: D, 048, E, K, L and the majority of minuscules.
• omitted: F and G

Lost Pauline epistles

Paul's own writings are sometimes thought to indicate several of his letters that have not been preserved:

• A first, or "zeroth", epistle to Corinth, also called A Prior Epistle of Paul to the Corinthians, or Paul's previous Corinthian letter, possibly referenced at 1 Corinthians 5:9.
• A third epistle to Corinth, written in between 1 and 2 Corinthians, also called the Severe Letter, referenced at 2 Corinthians 2:4 and 2 Corinthians 7:8–9
• An earlier epistle to the Ephesians referenced at Ephesians 3:3–4
• A possible Pauline Epistle to the Laodiceans,

Pseudepigraphic epistles

Several other epistles were attributed to Paul during the course of history but are now considered pseudepigraphic:

• Third Epistle to the Corinthians, a correspondence of two letters allegedly sent by the Corinthians to Paul, and then a reply letter allegedly sent by Paul to the Church of Corinth. It was considered genuine for some time by the Syriac Orthodox Church and the Armenian Apostolic Church, but is now widely dated in the second half of the 2nd century CE.
• Epistle to the Alexandrians, an alleged epistle written by Paul to the Church of Alexandria. It is mentioned in the Muratorian fragment (2nd century CE), which denounces it as a spurious work forged by Marcion of Sinope. Its text has been lost and nothing is known about its content.
• Non-Pauline Epistle to the Laodiceans versions:
  • The Marcionite Epistle to the Laodiceans. The Muratorian fragment (2nd century CE) denounces a claimed Epistle to the Laodiceans as another spurious work forged by Marcion of Sinope. Its text has been lost and nothing is known about its content.
  • The Latin Epistle to the Laodiceans. It is found in some old Latin Bible manuscripts, but is widely considered a forgery, and is largely a copy of verses from the Epistle to the Philippians. Theories vary, but it was possibly made as a counterforgery to offset the popularity of the Marcionite epistle.
• Correspondence of Paul and Seneca, a collection of correspondence claiming to be between Paul and Seneca the Younger. They are universally considered a forgery from the 4th century CE.

Collected epistles

David Trobisch finds it likely that Paul first collected his letters for publication himself. It was normal practice in Paul's time for letter writers to keep one copy for themselves and send a second copy to the recipient(s); surviving collections of ancient letters sometimes originated from the senders' copies, at other times from the recipients' copies. A collection of Paul's letters circulated separately from other early Christian writings and later became part of the New Testament. When the canon was established, the gospels and Paul's letters were the core of what would become the New Testament.

References

Bibliographic resources

• Aland Kurt. "The Problem of Anonymity and Pseudonymity in Christian Literature of the First Two Centuries." Journal of Theological Studies 12 (1961): 39–49.
• Bahr, Gordon J. "Paul and Letter Writing in the First Century." Catholic Biblical Quarterly 28 (1966): 465–477. idem, "The Subscriptions in the Pauline Letters." Journal of Biblical Literature 2 (1968): 27–41.
• Bauckham, Richard J. "Pseudo-Apostolic Letters." Journal of Biblical Literature 107 (1988): 469–494.
• Carson, D.A. "Pseudonymity and Pseudepigraphy." Dictionary of New Testament Background. Eds. Craig A. Evans and Stanley E. Porter. Downers Grove: InterVarsity, 2000. 857–864.
• Cousar, Charles B. The Letters of Paul. Interpreting Biblical Texts. Nashville: Abingdon, 1996.
• Deissmann, G. Adolf. Bible Studies. Trans. Alexander Grieve. 1901. Peabody: Hendrickson, 1988.
• Doty, William G. Letters in Primitive Christianity. Guides to Biblical Scholarship. New Testament. Ed. Dan O. Via Jr. Philadelphia: Fortress, 1988.
• Gamble, Harry Y. "Amanuensis." Anchor Bible Dictionary. Vol. 1. Ed. David Noel Freedman. New York: Doubleday, 1992.
• Haines-Eitzen, Kim. "'Girls Trained in Beautiful Writing': Female Scribes in Roman Antiquity and Early Christianity." Journal of Early Christian Studies 6.4 (1998): 629–646.
• Hart, David Bentley. "The New Testament." New Haven and London: Yale University Press: 2017. 570–574.
• Kim, Yung Suk. A Theological Introduction to Paul's Letters. Eugene, Oregon: Cascade Books, 2011.
• Longenecker, Richard N. "Ancient Amanuenses and the Pauline Epistles." New Dimensions in New Testament Study. Eds. Richard N. Longenecker and Merrill C. Tenney. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1974. 281–297. idem, "On the Form, Function, and Authority of the New Testament Letters." Scripture and Truth. Eds. D.A. Carson and John D. Woodbridge. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1983. 101–114.
• Murphy-O'Connor, Jerome. Paul the Letter-Writer: His World, His Options, His Skills. Collegeville, MN: Liturgical, 1995.
• Richards, E. Randolph. The Secretary in the Letters of Paul. Tübingen: Mohr, 1991. idem, "The Codex and the Early Collection of Paul's Letters." Bulletin for Bulletin Research 8 (1998): 151–66. idem, Paul and First-Century Letter Writing: Secretaries, Composition, and Collection. Downers Grove: InterVarsity, 2004.
• Robson, E. Iliff. "Composition and Dictation in New Testament Books." Journal of Theological Studies 18 (1917): 288–301.
• Slaten, Arthur Wakefield (1918) "Qualitative nouns in the Pauline epistles and their translation in the revised version". Chicago, Illonis: The University of Chicago Press.
• Stowers, Stanley K. Letter Writing in Greco-Roman Antiquity. Library of Early Christianity. Vol. 8. Ed. Wayne A. Meeks. Philadelphia: Westminster, 1989.
• Wall, Robert W. "Introduction to Epistolary Literature." New Interpreter's Bible. Vol. 10. Ed. Leander E. Keck. Nashville: Abingdon, 2002. 369–391.

References

1. [http://catholic-resources.org/Bible/Paul-Disputed.htm New Testament Letter Structure], from [http://catholic-resources.org Catholic Resources] by Felix Just, S.J.
2. Sanders, E.P.. (27 December 2019). "Saint Paul, the Apostle".
3. ''The New Jerome Biblical Commentary'', publ. Geoffrey Chapman, 1989, chapter 60, at p. 920, col. 2 "That Paul is neither directly nor indirectly the author is now the view of scholars almost without exception. For details, see Kümmel, I[ntroduction to the] N[ew] T[estament, Nashville, 1975] 392–94, 401–03"
4. Metzger, Bruce M.. (1987). "The Canon of the New Testament: Its Origin, Development, and Significance". Clarendon Press.
5. [[Joseph Barber Lightfoot]] in his ''Commentary on the Epistle to the Galatians'' writes: "At this point [{{bibleverse. Gal. 6:11] the apostle takes the pen from his [[amanuensis]], and the concluding paragraph is written with his own hand. From the time when letters began to be forged in his name ({{bibleverse. 2. Thess. 2:2; {{bibleverse-nb. 2. Thess. 3:17) it seems to have been his practice to close with a few words in his own handwriting, as a precaution against such forgeries... In the present case he writes a whole paragraph, summing up the main lessons of the epistle in terse, eager, disjointed sentences. He writes it, too, in large, bold characters (Gr. ''pelikois grammasin''), that his handwriting may reflect the energy and determination of his soul."
6. (2002). "New Interpreter's Bible". Abingdon Press.
7. (1996). "The Apostol". St. Tikhon's Seminary Press.
8. (1993). "The New International Greek Testament Commentary: The Epistle to the Hebrews". Wm. B. Eardmans Publishing Co..
9. (29 April 2023). "The Secretary: Enslaved Workers, Stenography, and the Production of Early Christian Literature". The Journal of Theological Studies.
10. (2006). "Scribes and Ancient Letters Implications for the Pauline Epistles". How the New Testament Came to Be: The Thirty-fifth Annual Sidney B. Sperry Symposium, ed.
11. (30 January 2015). "The Secretaries of Peter, Paul and John".
12. (1991). "The Secretary in the Letters of Paul". Mohr Siebeck.
13. (2020). "The New Cambridge Companion to St. Paul". Cambridge University Press.
14. Moss, Candida R. (2023-04-01). "The Secretary: Enslaved Workers, Stenography, and the Production of Early Christian Literature". The Journal of Theological Studies.
15. (2008). "ESV Study Bible". Crossway.
16. Digital Vatican Library (DigiVatLib), [https://digi.vatlib.it/view/MSS_Vat.gr.1209 Manuscript – Vat.gr.1209]
17. "Lost Books of the Bible?".
18. (1 December 2003). "Are There Lost Books of the Bible?". Apologetics Press.
19. {{bibleverse. 1 Corinthians. 5:9
20. {{bibleverse. 2 Corinthians. 2:4
21. {{bibleverse. 2 Corinthians. 7:8–9
22. {{bibleverse. Ephesians. 3:3–4
23. referenced at [[Colossians 4]]:16{{bibleverse. Colossians. 4:16
24. (2014-04-24). "Sacra Scriptura: How "Non-Canonical" Texts Functioned in Early Judaism and Early Christianity". Bloomsbury Publishing.
25. Olshausen, Hermann. (1851). "Biblical Commentary on St. Paul's First and Second Epistles to the Corinthians". T. & T. Clark.
26. Ehrman, Bart. (2012). "Forgery and Counterforgery: The Use of Literary Deceit in Early Christian Polemics". Oxford University Press.
27. "Letters of Paul and Seneca".
28. Trobisch, David. (1994). "Paul's Letter Collection". Fortress.
29. Reece, Steve. ''Paul's Large Letters: Pauline Subscriptions in the Light of Ancient Epistolary Conventions.'' London: T&T Clark, 2016.{{page needed. (July 2020)