Nationalization of history

Universal history

Main article: World history (field)

Universal history, the result of a universal, cosmopolitan interpretation of historical events and mankind as a whole, coherent unit, preceded the nationalization of history. In the Western world, this motivation to imagine a universal history became influential in the 18th century when numerous philosophers promoted new cosmopolitan ideologies,{{Cite web | access-date = October 20, 2010 | author-link = A. G. Hopkins | access-date = October 20, 2010

In his Essay on customs (1756) Voltaire studied development of civilization in the world with universal perspective, rejecting tradition, Christian and national frames. He was significantly influenced by Jacques-Bénigne Bossuet and his work Discourse on the Universal history (1682) when he was first who seriously attempted to write a history of the world, without limits imposed by nation or religion, emphasizing economical, cultural and political history. Imanuel Kant developed ideas about universally applicable moral imperatives in his work Perpetual Peace (1795) and designed a plan for establishing a cosmopolitan liberal order which would result in perpetual peace. Universalism of the 18th century created an ideology which today could be identified as modern civil society.

The emerging of modern historiography is connected with German universities in the 19th century and the significant influence of Leopold von Ranke who insisted on objectivity and systematic use of historical documents in the form of authentic primary sources; his credo was to perform reconstruction of the past "as it was". Ranke's universal precepts in virtually all his works were, however, applied almost exclusively to the history of states and nations.A. G. Hopkins, p.2 " These were universal precepts. In practice, however, they were applied almost exclusively to the history of states and nation states in Europe,.... Virtually all of Ranke's own work,... was devoted to these themes."

Causes of nationalization of history

Though nationalization of history could probably be traced from the earliest phases of creating historical works, it was in the period after the French Revolution that creating of historical works started to be strongly influenced by national perspectives, and that perspective gradually became globally dominant with its culmination during the 19th and at the beginning of the 20th century. Nationalism was estimated as the proper perspective to such an extent that nationalization of history remained unnoticed till recently (1980s and 1990s) and was not studied in historiography in a scale that would correspond to its significance.

Many various reasons, depending on the circumstances, caused nationalization of history. Probably the most important is national revival, the important element of which was nationalized history, that resulted in the emerging of modern nations and nation-states, mostly during the 19th century. With the emerging of national states, a global universal approach to writing history lost ground to the nation-state and was very much captured by it even in a significant part of the 20th century. The professionalization and institutionalization of history that took part in nation-states' institutions during the 19th and first half of the 20th century was closely connected with the process of history's increasing nationalization. Nationalization of history was additionally entrenched by the development of national curricula in schools based on "monumental and prestigious" series of "authoritative" national stories, often written in insular style and justificatory manner.

]] After the First World War was finished, in some cases during establishment of new frontiers, the principle of national self-determination was taken in consideration during frontier demarcation. Therefore, it was necessary to establish the national historical character of certain territories and settlements, like in case between Germany and Poland and the Versailles treaty when numerous historians prepared short studies in an attempt to support territory demands based on Germany or Poland.{{Cite web | access-date = October 18, 2010 | archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20110724113010/http://www.cliohres.net/books4/5/13.pdf | archive-date =2011-07-24 | url-status = dead

After the Second World War and the process of decolonization, the process of establishing new countries led to additionally stimulated nationalization of history because "new flags requested new histories". Even when citizens of newly established countries already had their national identity built, the nationalization of history was aimed to create of new national identity based on citizenship. Canada is an example of an attempt at nationalization of history to create a shared, historically rooted identity for English and French Canadians.{{Cite book | access-date = October 18, 2010 Causes of nationalization of history in former communist regimes, mostly at the end of the 20th century, can be also found in reaction on long-term submission to communist historical interpretations and forced disregard for bourgeois nationalistic past.{{cite book | access-date = October 19, 2010 | archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20070825174221/http://www.eurozine.com/articles/2007-05-10-zhurzhenko-en.html | archive-date =2007-08-25 | url-status = dead

Renationalization of history

If the first phase of nationalization of history was forcibly suppressed by a national ideology (communism) or traumatic losing of wars (Japan, Germany, ...) there can be a second phase, renationalization of history, on usually changed basis and perspective of nationalism.

Renationalization of history in Ukraine

The nationalization of history in Ukraine had two separate phases:

• First phase began in the middle of the 19th century and reached its culmination in Mykhailo Hrushevsky's “History of Ukraine - Rus'”. This phase lasted till the end of the Second World War when it was stopped because of political changes in the Soviet Union, while in diasporas Hrushevsky's text had cult status.
• Second phase started in the 1980s and still lasts as of 2010, as a consequence of direct state sponsorship becoming an integral part of nationalization of the state. At the beginning, it was not so intensive, but after its turning point on August 24, 1991, it achieved special purposes: to legitimize the newly established state and its governing elites, establishing territorial and chronological conceptions of the Ukrainian nation, and to confirm the appropriateness of its existence as legal successor in the consciousness of its citizens and neighbours.

The first phase chronologically coincided with the process of "rediscovery of tradition" and national revival that captured all of Europe, while the second phase takes place in a period of globalization, vanishing cultural frontiers and aggressive international forms of mass culture.

Legacy

Nation mythologies, histories and states

One of the most important consequences of printed texts of nationalized history was that it provided a basis for national revivals in the process of creating modern nations.{{Cite web | access-date = October 19, 2010 | access-date = October 19, 2010 | author-link = Serhii Plokhii | author-link = Alan Dundes | access-date = October 29, 2010

The nationalization of history, which had its origins more in the epics and tendentious oratory than in philosophy, sometimes grew the idea of an esprit des peuples or national spirit and later still the idea that each nation had a 'mission'. Such ideas evolved not into groups of associated individuals, but into universal spirits that is said to be able to destroy individuals and nations.{{cite book | author-link = Benedetto Croce | archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20110716052918/http://shawnslayton.com/open/books/Book%20My%20Philosophy%20great%20read.pdf | archive-date =2011-07-16 | access-date = November 6, 2010 | orig-year = 1949 | url-status = dead

The nationalization of history was an important element of national revival and creating new nation states in the 19th and the beginning of the 20th century. New nation states and their institutions had the most important role in social process of the professionalization and institutionalization of history that was additionally supporting the process of nationalization of history. The final consequence was that national history regarded the nation-state as the primary unit of historical analysis.

Society and nature

The nationalization of history affects all aspects of life, from relationships with other nationalities to architecture. That is a result of the fact that nationalization of history corresponds with nationalization of nature and the fact that reservations and hostilities toward other nations accompanied nationalism from the beginning. At the end of the 20th century were extreme nationalistic interpretations of Balkan and Caucasus history, which became powerful weapons in ethno-territorial conflicts and accelerated disintegration of multinational states like Yugoslavia and the Soviet Union.

After disintegration of multinational states like Yugoslavia and Soviet Union, besides the process of renationalization of history, there is sometimes also retroactive nationalization of victims or tragedies of the people that in past lived in those states. According to new national historical narratives, the reason for some people were the victims of certain tragedies was because they were of a certain nationality, for example the Ukrainians of the Soviet Union. Nationalist discourse in Croatia presents the Bleiburg repatriations as an event in which only Croatians suffered and died just because they were Croatians but eludes the fact that many of the victims were Serbs, Montenegrins or Slovenians, and many Croatians had died fighting as collaborators against Yugoslav partisans.{{cite web

Denationalization of history

The nationalization of history has been increasingly called into question,{{cite book | author-link = Michael Cronin (academic) | chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=RsRKWSwp3CcC&dq=%22nationalization+of+history%22&pg=PA22 | access-date = November 5, 2010 |access-date = October 18, 2010 |archive-date = July 25, 2011 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110725174850/http://civiceducationproject.org/legacy/aboutus/newsletter/new0051.html |url-status = dead | archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20041219045758/http://www.cees-europe.fr/fr/etudes/revue4/r4a5.PDF | archive-date =2004-12-19 | access-date = October 18, 2010 | url-status = dead

If history was reinterpreted and filtered by the media and official orthodoxy, there is a situation in which the nationalization of history leads to its denial.{{cite book

References

References

1. Kasianov, Terr, p. 7, "In some countries nationalization of history was part of "invention of tradition", while in others it was an element of so called "national renaissance" or "national awakening" ...
2. A. G. Hopkins, p.2 "Leopold von Ranke founded historical research on the systematic use of documentary evidence, on reconstructing the past `as it was', and on the ideal of objectivity."
3. Kasianov, Terr; p. 7, "In some countries nationalization of history was part of "invention of tradition", while in others it was an element of so called "national renaissance" or "national awakening" .."
4. A. G. Hopkins, p. 2 "Nevertheless, the cosmopolitan ideal lost ground to the nation state in the nineteenth century and for the greater part of the twentieth century too, and was to a large degree captured by it."
5. link. "Writing the Nation - A Global Perspective (Stefan Berger)". Stefan Berger. (January 16, 2008). European Science Foundation
6. A. G. Hopkins, p. 2, "The tradition of writing national histories was further entrenched in the twentieth century through the development of national curricula in schools and the production of prestigious series, typically described as being monumental' and authoritative', that told the `national story' in an insular style and often in a justificatory manner."
7. A. G. Hopkins, p.2 "This approach was adopted enthusiastically by the new states that came into being following the upheavals brought about by two world wars and decolonization. New flags required new histories."
8. Kasianov, Terr, p. 7, "Ukraine experienced nationalization of history in two stages. The first began in mid-nineteenth century and reached its heights in the creation of grand narrative, Mykhailo Hrushevsky's „History of Ukraine - Rus“. The tradition of historical writings that emerged at this stage persisted in Ukrainian Marxist historiography until the end of Second World War.... In diasporas historiography it turned it into canon, a true credo. The second stage began in 1980s and still continuing. .... It is taking place under state sponsorship and is integral part of nationalization of the state."
9. Kasianov, Terr, p. 11, "Nationalized history began to fulfil important instrumental functions: legitimize newly established state and its attendant elite, establishing territorial and chronological conceptions of Ukrainian nation, and to confirm nations appropriateness of that nations existence as legal successor in the consciousness of its citizens and neighbours alike."
10. Kasianov, Terr, p. 7,"... unlike the previous stage, that coincided with general European phenomenon of "invention of tradition" and the development of the nations, the present stage is unfolding in the era of globalization, fading the cultural boundaries and large-scale aggression of the international forms of mass culture."
11. link. "Nature and Ideology - Natural Garden Design in the Twentieth Century - The Nationalization of Nature and the Naturalization of the German Nation: "Teutonic" Trends in Early Twentieth-Century, Landscape Design". Joachim Wolschke-Bulmahn. Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, Trustees for Harvard University
12. Pakier, Stråth; p. 39, "In the Balkan and Caucasian parts of Europe, history in extreme nationalistic interpretations developed into powerful weapon in ethno-territorial conflicts and accelerated disintegration of multi-national states like Soviet Union and Yugoslavia."
13. Zhurzhenko, The geopolitics of memory, " An important consequence of the delegitimization of the Soviet historical narrative and the (re-)construction of national histories after 1991 is the retroactive [[nationalization of victims]].... According to the new national historical narrative, they were killed by the Soviet regime because they were Ukrainians."