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List of sultans of the Ottoman Empire

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Summary

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Field	Value
border	imperial
royal_title	Sultan
realm	the Ottoman Empire
native_name	Osmanlı padişahı
coatofarms	Osmanli-nisani.svg
coatofarmscaption	Imperial coat of arms (from 1882)
image	Sultan Mehmed VI of the Ottoman Empire.jpg
caption	Last to reign
Mehmed VI
4 July 1918 – 1 November 1922
first_monarch	Osman I ( 1299–1323/4)
last_monarch	Mehmed VI (1918–1922)
style	His Imperial Majesty
residence	Palaces in Istanbul:
appointer	Hereditary
began	1299
ended	1 November 1922

Mehmed VI 4 July 1918 – 1 November 1922

Eski Saray
Topkapı (1460s–1853)
Dolmabahçe (1853–1889; 1909–1922)
Yıldız (1889–1909)

Ottoman Imperial Standard

[[Ottoman Empire]] in 1683, at the height of its territorial expansion in Europe.

The sultans of the Ottoman Empire (), who were all members of the Ottoman dynasty (House of Osman), ruled over the transcontinental empire from its perceived inception in 1299 to its dissolution in 1922. At its height, the Ottoman Empire spanned an area from Hungary in the north to Yemen in the south and from Algeria in the west to Iraq in the east. Administered at first from the city of Söğüt since before 1280 and then from the city of Bursa since 1323 or 1324, the empire's capital was moved to Adrianople (now known as Edirne in English) in 1363 following its conquest by Murad I and then to Constantinople (present-day Istanbul) in 1453 following its conquest by Mehmed II.

The Ottoman Empire's early years have been the subject of varying narratives, due to the difficulty of discerning fact from legend. The empire came into existence at the end of the 13th century, and its first ruler (and the namesake of the Empire) was Osman I. According to later, often unreliable Ottoman tradition, Osman was a descendant of the Kayı tribe of the Oghuz Turks.Kafadar 1995, p. 122. "That they hailed from the Kayı branch of the Oğuz confederacy seems to be a creative "rediscovery" in the genealogical concoction of the fifteenth century. It is missing not only in Ahmedi but also, and more importantly, in the Yahşi Fakih-Aşıkpaşazade narrative, which gives its own version of an elaborate genealogical family tree going back to Noah. If there was a particularly significant claim to Kayı lineage, it is hard to imagine that Yahşi Fakih would not have heard of it."

Lowry 2003, p. 78. "Based on these charters, all of which were drawn up between 1324 and 1360 (almost one hundred fifty years prior to the emergence of the Ottoman dynastic myth identifying them as members of the Kayı branch of the Oguz federation of Turkish tribes), we may posit that..."

Lindner 1983, p. 10. "In fact, no matter how one were to try, the sources simply do not allow the recovery of a family tree linking the antecedents of Osman to the Kayı of the Oğuz tribe. Without a proven genealogy, or even without evidence of sufficient care to produce a single genealogy to be presented to all the court chroniclers, there obviously could be no tribe; thus, the tribe was not a factor in early Ottoman history." The eponymous Ottoman dynasty he founded endured for six centuries through the reigns of 36 sultans. The Ottoman Empire disappeared as a result of the defeat of the Central Powers, with whom it had allied itself during World War I. The partitioning of the Empire by the victorious Allies and the ensuing Turkish War of Independence led to the abolition of the sultanate in 1922 and the birth of the modern Republic of Turkey in 1922.

Names

The sultan was also referred to as the padishah (, ). In Ottoman usage the word "Padishah" was usually used except "sultan" was used when he was directly named. In several European languages, he was referred to as the Grand Turk, as the ruler of the Turks, or simply the "Great Lord" (il Gran Signore, le grand seigneur) especially in the 16th century.

Names of the sultan in languages used by ethnic minorities:

Arabic: In some documents "padishah" was replaced by "malik" ("king")
Bulgarian: In earlier periods Bulgarian people called him the "tsar". The translation of the Ottoman Constitution of 1876 instead used direct translations of "sultan" (Султан Sultan) and "padishah" (Падишах Padišax)
Greek: In earlier periods the Greeks used the Byzantine Empire-style name "basileus". The translation of the Ottoman Constitution of 1876 instead used a direct transliterations of "sultan" (Σουλτάνος Soultanos) and "padishah" (ΠΑΔΙΣΑΧ padisach).
Judaeo-Spanish: Especially in older documents, El Rey ("the king") was used. In addition some Ladino documents used sultan (in Hebrew characters: שולטן and סולטן).

State organisation of the Ottoman Empire

Main article: State organisation of the Ottoman Empire

The Ottoman Empire was an absolute monarchy during much of its existence. By the second half of the fifteenth century, the sultan sat at the apex of a hierarchical system and acted in political, military, judicial, social, and religious capacities under a variety of titles. He was theoretically responsible only to God and divine law (the Islamic شریعت şeriat, known in Arabic as شريعة sharia), of which he was the chief executor. His heavenly mandate (Kut) was reflected in Islamic titles such as "shadow of God on Earth" (ظل الله في العالم ẓıll Allāh fī'l-ʿalem) and "caliph of the face of the earth" (خلیفه روی زمین Ḫalife-i rū-yi zemīn). All offices were filled by his authority, and every law was issued by him in the form of a decree called firman (فرمان). He was the supreme military commander and had the official title to all land. Osman (died 1323/4) son of Ertuğrul was the first ruler of the Ottoman state, which during his reign constituted a small principality (beylik) in the region of Bithynia on the frontier of the Byzantine Empire.

After the conquest of Constantinople in 1453 by Mehmed II, Ottoman sultans came to regard themselves as the successors of the Roman Empire, hence their occasional use of the titles caesar (قیصر qayser) of Rûm, and emperor, as well as the caliph of Islam. Newly enthroned Ottoman rulers were girded with the Sword of Osman, an important ceremony that served as the equivalent of European monarchs' coronation. A non-girded sultan was not eligible to have his children included in the line of succession.

Although absolute in theory and in principle, the sultan's powers were limited in practice. Political decisions had to take into account the opinions and attitudes of important members of the dynasty, the bureaucratic and military establishments, as well as religious leaders. Beginning in the last decades of the sixteenth century, the role of the Ottoman sultans in the government of the empire began to decrease, in a period known as the Transformation of the Ottoman Empire. Despite being barred from inheriting the throne, women of the imperial harem—especially the reigning sultan's mother, known as the valide sultan—also played an important behind-the-scenes political role, effectively ruling the empire during the period known as the Sultanate of Women.

Constitutionalism was established during the reign Abdul Hamid II, who thus became the empire's last absolute ruler and its reluctant first constitutional monarch. Although Abdul Hamid II abolished the parliament and the constitution to return to personal rule in 1878, he was again forced in 1908 to reinstall constitutionalism and was deposed. Since 2021, the head of the Osmanoğlu family has been Harun Osman, a great-grandson of Abdul Hamid II.

List of sultans

Poster showing sultans of the Ottoman dynasty, from Osman I (upper left corner) to Mehmed V (large portrait in the center)

The table below lists Ottoman sultans, as well as the last Ottoman caliph, in chronological order. The tughras were the calligraphic seals or signatures used by Ottoman sultans. They were displayed on all official documents as well as on coins, and were far more important in identifying a sultan than his portrait. The "Notes" column contains information on each sultan's parentage and fate. Early Ottomans practiced what historian Quataert has described as "survival of the fittest, not eldest, son": when a sultan died, his sons had to fight each other for the throne until a victor emerged. Because of the infighting and numerous fratricides that occurred, there was often a time gap between a sultan's death date and the accession date of his successor. In 1617, the law of succession changed from survival of the fittest to a system based on agnatic seniority (اکبریت ekberiyet), whereby the throne went to the oldest male of the family. This in turn explains why from the 17th century onwards a deceased sultan was rarely succeeded by his own son, but usually by an uncle or brother. Agnatic seniority was retained until the abolition of the sultanate, despite unsuccessful attempts in the 19th century to replace it with primogeniture. Note that pretenders and co-claimants during the Ottoman Interregnum are also listed here, but they are not included in the formal numbering of sultans.

No.	Sultan	Portrait	Reign	Tughra	Notes	Coinage
Rise of the Ottoman Empire
(1299–1453)
1	Osman I	[[File:I Osman.jpg	100px]]	Finkel 2007]], p. 33.
(25 years~)			[[File:Osman Gazi Coin.jpg	180px]]
2	Orhan	[[File:Metehanzade orhangazi.jpg	100px]]	c. 1324 – March 1362
(38 years~)	[[File:Tughra of Orhan.svg	100px	Tughra of Orhan]]		[[File:Orhan Gazi Akçe.jpg	180px]]
3	Murad I	[[File:Murad I.jpg	100px]]	March 1362 – 15 June 1389
()	[[File:Tughra of Murad I.svg	100px	Tughra of Murad I]]		[[File:1555 osmanli 1 murat nm nd.jpg	180px]]
4	Bayezid I	[[File:Baiazeth. P. IIII.jpg	100px]]	15 June 1389 – 20 July 1402
()	[[File:Tughra of Bayezid I.svg	100px	Tughra of Bayezid I]]		[[File:Bayezid I AR akce.png	180px]]
Ottoman Interregnum
(20 July 1402 – 5 July 1413)
—	İsa Çelebi	[[File:İsa Çelebi.jpg	100px]]	January – March/May 1403
(3–5 months)
—	Süleyman Çelebi	[[File:Arolsen Klebeband 01 449 4.jpg	100px]]	20 July 1402 –
17 February 1411
()	[[File:Tughra of Süleyman Çelebi.png	100px]]		[[File:Süleyman Çelebi coin 1404.png	180px]]
—	Musa Çelebi	[[File:Paolo Veronese (Nachfolger) - Bildnis des Sultans Moise - 2238 - Bavarian State Painting Collections.jpg	100px]]	von Hammer]], pp. 58–60.
()			[[File:Akçe - Musa Çelebi.png	180px]]
—	Mehmed Çelebi	[[File:Mehmed I miniature.jpg	100px]]	1403 – 5 July 1413
(10 years)			[[File:Akçe - Mehmed Çelebi in the name of Timur.png	180px]]
Sultanate resumed
5	Mehmed I	[[File:Mehmed I miniature.jpg	100px]]	5 July 1413 – 26 May 1421
()	[[File:Tughra of Mehmed I.svg	100px	Tughra of Mehmed I]]
—	Mustafa Çelebi		January 1419 – May 1422
()			[[File:Akçe - Mustafa Çelebi.png	180px]]
6	Murad II	[[File:Paolo Veronese (Nachfolger) - Sultan Murad II. - 2237 - Bavarian State Painting Collections.jpg	100px]]	25 June 1421 –
August 1444
()	[[File:Tughra of Murad II.svg	100px	Tughra of Murad II]]		[[File:Akçe of Murad II Obverse.JPG	80px]][[File:Akçe of Murad II Reverse.JPG	80px]]
7	Mehmed II	[[File:Bellini, Gentile - Sultan Mehmet II.jpg	100px]]	August 1444 –
September 1446
()	[[File:Tughra of Mehmed II.svg	100px	Tughra of Mehmed II]]		[[File:Akce_-_Mehmed_II_First_reign.png	180px]]
(6)	Murad II	[[File:Paolo Veronese (Nachfolger) - Sultan Murad II. - 2237 - Bavarian State Painting Collections.jpg	100px]]	September 1446 –
3 February 1451
()	[[File:Tughra of Murad II.svg	100px	Tughra of Murad II]]
Growth of the Ottoman Empire
(1453–1550)
(7)	Mehmed II	[[File:Bellini, Gentile - Sultan Mehmet II.jpg	100px]]	3 February 1451 –
3 May 1481
()	[[File:Tughra of Mehmed II.svg	100px	Tughra of Mehmed II]]		[[File:Coin of Mehmed II 1451, second reign.png	180px]]
8	Bayezid II	[[File:Beyazid II.jpg	100px]]	19 May 1481 –
25 April 1512
()	[[File:Tughra of Bayezid II.svg	100px	Tughra of Bayezid II]]		[[File:1692 osmanli 2 beyazid ankara 886.jpg	180px]]
—	Cem Sultan	[[File:Cem-in-italy.jpg	100px]]	28 May – 20 June 1481
()	[[File:Cem Sultan Tughra.png	100px	Tughra of Cem]]		[[File:Akçe - Cem Sultan.png	180px]]
9	Selim I	[[File:Nakkaş Selim.jpg	100px]]	25 April 1512 –
21 September 1520
()	[[File:Tughra of Padishah Yavuz Sultan Selim.png	100px	Tughra of Selim I]]		[[File:Akçe of Selim I Constantinople mint 1512.jpg	180px]]
10	Suleiman I	[[File:EmperorSuleiman.jpg	100px]]	30 September 1520 –
6 September 1566
()	[[File:Tughra of Suleiman I the Magnificent.svg	100px	Tughra of Suleiman I]]		[[File:Sultani of Suleiman I, 1520.jpg	180px]]
Transformation of the Ottoman Empire
(1550–1700)
11	Selim II	[[File:Portrait Of Sultan Selim II.jpg	100px]]	29 September 1566 –
15 December 1574
()	[[File:Tughra of Selim II.svg	100px	Tughra of Selim II]]		[[File:Sultani LACMA M.2006.143.1 (2 of 2).jpg	80px]][[File:Sultani LACMA M.2006.143.1 (1 of 2).jpg	80px]]
12	Murad III	[[File:Sultan Murad III.jpeg	100px]]	27 December 1574 –
16 January 1595
()	[[File:Tughra of Murad III.svg	100px	Tughra of Murad III]]		[[File:Sequin Murad III 1576.jpg	180px]]
13	Mehmed III	[[File:Sultan Mehmet III of the Ottoman Empire.jpg	100px]]	16 January 1595 –
22 December 1603
()	[[File:Tughra of Mehmed III.svg	100px	Tughra of Mehmed III]]		[[File:Coin of Mehmed III.png	180px]]
14	Ahmed I	[[File:صورة للشاهزاده أحمد 2013-12-19 09-18.jpg	100px]]	22 December 1603 –
22 November 1617
()	[[File:Tughra of Ahmed I.JPG	100px	Tughra of Ahmed I]]		[[File:Post-medieval coin, Uncertain denomination of Ahmed I (FindID 489958).jpg	180px]]
15	Mustafa I	[[File:Mustafa I portrait.jpg	100px]]	22 November 1617 –
26 February 1618
()	[[File:Tughra of Mustafa I.JPG	100px	Tughra of Mustafa I]]
16	Osman II	[[File:Osman 2.jpg	100px]]	26 February 1618 –
19 May 1622
()	[[File:Tughra of Osman II.JPG	100px	Tughra of Osman II]]		[[File:Sultani - Osman II.jpg	180px]]
(15)	Mustafa I	[[File:Mustafa I portrait.jpg	100px]]	20 May 1622 –
10 September 1623
()	[[File:Tughra of Mustafa I.JPG	100px	Tughra of Mustafa I]]
17	Murad IV	[[File:Murad IV.jpg	100px]]	10 September 1623 –
8 February 1640
()	[[File:Tughra of Murad IV.svg	100px	Tughra of Murad IV]]
18	Ibrahim	[[File:Ibrahim Deli.jpg	100px]]	9 February 1640 –
8 August 1648
()	[[File:Tughra of Ibrahim.JPG	100px	Tughra of Ibrahim]]
19	Mehmed IV	[[File:Sultan Mehmed IV (2).jpg	100px]]	8 August 1648 –
8 November 1687
()	[[File:Tughra of Mehmed IV.png	100px	Tughra of Mehmed IV]]		[[File:Osmanen- Mehmed IV. - Münzkabinett, Berlin - 5556643.jpg	180px]]
20	Suleiman II	[[File:II Suleyman.jpg	100px]]	8 November 1687 –
22 June 1691
()	[[File:Tughra of Suleiman II.svg	100px	Tughra of Suleiman II]]		[[File:Kupfer Not-Akce 1099 H., Qustantiniya (Konstantinopel-Istanbul)-210-00912q00.jpg	180px]]
21	Ahmed II	[[File:Ahmed II Sahand Ace.jpg	134x134px]]	22 June 1691 –
6 February 1695
()	[[File:Tughra of Ahmed II.JPG	100px	Tughra of Ahmed II]]
22	Mustafa II	[[File:Mustafa II dressed in full armour.JPG	100px]]	6 February 1695 –
22 August 1703
()	[[File:Tughra of Mustafa II.JPG	100px	Tughra of Mustafa II]]		[[File:1 Kuruș Mustafa II of Ottoman 1695-1704.png	180px]]
Stagnation and reform of the Ottoman Empire
(1700–1827)
23	Ahmed III	[[File:Portrait of Sultan Ahmed III (1673–1736), three-quarter-length, standing, with a view onto the Bosphorus and the Hagia Sophia by Jean-Baptiste Vanmour.jpg	100px]]	22 August 1703 –
1 October 1730
()	[[File:Tughra of Ahmed III.JPG	100px	Tughra of Ahmed III]]		[[File:Sultani of Ahmed III, 1703.jpg	180px]]
24	Mahmud I	[[File:Sultan Mahmud I – Jean Baptiste Vanmour.jpg (cropped).jpg	100px]]	2 October 1730 –
13 December 1754
()	[[File:Tughra of Mahmud I.JPG	100px	Tughra of Mahmud I]]		[[File:Sequin of Mahmud I.jpg	180px]]
25	Osman III	[[File:III.Osman.webp	100px]]	13 December 1754 –
30 October 1757
()	[[File:Tughra of Osman III.JPG	100px	Tughra of Osman III]]		[[File:Turchia, osman III, moneta d'oro, 1754-1757.JPG	100px]]
26	Mustafa III	[[File:Sultan Mustafa III.jpg	100px]]	30 October 1757 –
21 January 1774
()	[[File:Tughra of Mustafa III.svg	100px	Tughra of Mustafa III]]		[[File:1 Piastre 1183 Mustafa III (obv)-8477.jpg	80px]][[File:1 Piastre 1183 Mustafa III (rev)-8478.jpg	80px]]
27	Abdul Hamid I	[[File:Portrait of Abdülhamid I of the Ottoman Empire.jpg	100px]]	21 January 1774 –
7 April 1789
()	[[File:Tughra of Abdülhamid I.svg	100px	Tughra of Abdul Hamid I]]		[[File:M64 10para Constantinople KM383 1ar85 (8645875592).jpg	180px]]
28	Selim III	[[File:Joseph Warnia-Zarzecki - Sultan Selim III - Google Art Project.jpg	100px]]	7 April 1789 –
29 May 1807
()	[[File:Tughra of Selim III.JPG	100px	Tughra of Selim III]]		[[File:Rial Tunisien - Selim III - 1215 AH - 1800 AD.jpg	180px]]
29	Mustafa IV	[[File:IV. Mustafa.jpg	100px]]	29 May 1807 –
28 July 1808
()	[[File:Tughra of Mustafa IV.JPG	100px	Tughra of Mustafa IV]]
Modernization of the Ottoman Empire
(1827–1908)
30	Mahmud II	[[File:Mahmud II.jpg	100px]]	28 July 1808 –
1 July 1839
()	[[File:Tughra Mahmud II bw.svg	100px	Tughra of Mahmud II]]		[[File:2 Budju of Ottoman Algeria - Mahmud II 1823.png	180px]]
31	Abdul Mejid I	[[File:Abdulmejid portrait.jpg	100px]]	1 July 1839 –
25 June 1861
()	[[File:Tughra of Abdülmecid I.svg	100px	Tughra of Abdulmejid I]]		[[File:20 Piastres 1270 Abdülmecid I (obv)-8467.jpg	85px]][[File:20 Piastres 1270 Abdülmecid I (rev)-8468.jpg	85px]]
32	Abdul Aziz	[[File:4f3bdb2b3891715176c6580e6ab6cb4b--ottoman-empire-sultan.jpg	100px]]	25 June 1861 –
30 May 1876
()	[[File:Tughra of Abdülaziz.svg	100px	Tughra of Abdulaziz]]		[[File:20 kurus Abdulaziz 1862.png	180px]]
33	Murad V	[[File:Sultan Murad V., 1876.jpg	100px]]	30 May – 31 August 1876
()	[[File:Tughra of Murad V.svg	100px	Tughra of Murad V]]
34	Abdul Hamid II	[[File:Sultan Gazi Abdül Hamid II - السلطان الغازي عبد الحميد الثاني.png	100px]]	31 August 1876 –
27 April 1909
()	[[File:Tughra of Abdülhamid II.svg	100px	Tughra of Abdul Hamid II]]		[[File:20 kurus Abdul Hamid II - 1877.png	180px]]
35	Mehmed V Reşâd	[[File:Sultan Muhammed Chan V., Kaiser der Osmanen 1915 C. Pietzner.jpg	100px]]	27 April 1909 –
3 July 1918
()	[[File:Tughra of Mehmed V.svg	80px	Tughra of Mehmed V]]		[[File:Lira of Mehmed V, 1911.jpg	180px]]
36	Mehmed VI Vahideddin	[[File:Sultan Mehmed VI of the Ottoman Empire.jpg	100px]]	4 July 1918 –
1 November 1922
()	[[File:Tughra of Mehmed VI.svg	100px	Tughra of Mehmed VI]]		[[File:36-1336-01-500K-kost-au.jpg	180px]]
Caliph under the Grand National Assembly of Turkey
(1 November 1922 – 3 March 1924)
—	Abdul Mejid II	[[File:Portrait Caliph Abdulmecid II.jpg	100px]]	19 November 1922 –
3 March 1924
()	—
	—

Notes

Notes

:a: The full style of the Ottoman ruler was complex, as it was composed of several titles and evolved over the centuries. The title of sultan was used continuously by all rulers almost from the beginning. However, because it was widespread in the Muslim world, the Ottomans quickly adopted variations of it to dissociate themselves from other Muslim rulers of lesser status. Murad I, the third Ottoman monarch, styled himself sultân-ı âzam (سلطان اعظم, the most exalted sultan) and hüdavendigar (خداوندگار, emperor), titles used by the Anatolian Seljuqs and the Mongol Ilkhanids respectively. His son Bayezid I adopted the style Sultan of Rûm, Rûm being an old Islamic name for the Roman Empire. The combining of the Islamic and Central Asian heritages of the Ottomans led to the adoption of the title that became the standard designation of the Ottoman ruler: Sultan [Name] Khan. Ironically, although the title of sultan is most often associated in the Western world with the Ottomans, people within Turkey generally use the title of padishah far more frequently when referring to rulers of the Ottoman Dynasty. :b: The Ottoman Caliphate symbolized their spiritual power, whereas the sultanate represented their temporal power. According to Ottoman historiography, Murad I adopted the title of caliph during his reign (1362 to 1389), and Selim I later strengthened the caliphal authority during his conquest of Egypt in 1516-1517. However, the general consensus among modern scholars is that Ottoman rulers had used the title of caliph before the conquest of Egypt, as early as during the reign of Murad I (1362–1389), who brought most of the Balkans under Ottoman rule and established the title of sultan in 1383. It is currently agreed that the caliphate "disappeared" for two-and-a-half centuries, before being revived with the Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca, signed between the Ottoman Empire and Catherine II of Russia in 1774. The treaty was highly symbolic, since it marked the first international recognition of the Ottomans' claim to the caliphate. Although the treaty made official the Ottoman Empire's loss of the Crimean Khanate, it acknowledged the Ottoman caliph's continuing religious authority over Muslims in Russia. From the 18th century onwards, Ottoman sultans increasingly emphasized their status as caliphs in order to stir Pan-Islamist sentiments among the empire's Muslims in the face of encroaching European imperialism. When World War I broke out, Caliph Mehmed V issued a proclamation for jihad in 1914 against the Ottoman Empire's Allied enemies, unsuccessfully attempting to incite the subjects of the French, British and Russian empires to revolt. Abdul Hamid II was by far the Ottoman sultan who made the most use of his caliphal position, and was recognized as caliph by many Muslim heads of state, even as far away as the Philippines and Sumatra. He had his claim to the title inserted into the 1876 Constitution (Article 4). :c: Tughras were used by 35 out of 36 Ottoman sultans, starting with Orhan in the 14th century, whose tughra has been found on two different documents. No tughra bearing the name of Osman I, the founder of the empire, has ever been discovered, although a coin with the inscription "Osman bin Ertuğrul" has been identified. Abdulmejid II, the last Ottoman Caliph, also lacked a tughra of his own, since he did not serve as head of state (that position being held by Mustafa Kemal, President of the newly founded Republic of Turkey) but as a religious and royal figurehead. :d: The Ottoman Interregnum, also known as the Ottoman Triumvirate (), was a period of chaos in the Ottoman Empire which lasted from 1402 to 1413. It started following the defeat and capture of Bayezid I by the Turco-Mongol warlord Tamerlane at the Battle of Ankara, which was fought on 20 July 1402. Bayezid's sons fought each other for over a decade, until Mehmed I emerged as the undisputed victor in 1413. :e: The dissolution of the Ottoman Empire was a gradual process which started with the abolition of the sultanate and ended with that of the caliphate 16 months later. The sultanate was formally abolished on 1 November 1922. Sultan Mehmed VI fled to Malta on 17 November aboard the British warship Malaya. This event marked the end of the Ottoman Dynasty, not of the Ottoman State nor of the Ottoman Caliphate. On 19 November, the Grand National Assembly (TBMM) elected Mehmed VI's cousin Abdulmejid II, the then crown prince, as caliph. The official end of the Ottoman State was declared through the Treaty of Lausanne (24 July 1923), which recognized the new "Ankara government," and not the old Istanbul-based Ottoman government, as representing the rightful owner and successor state. The Republic of Turkey was proclaimed by the TBMM on 29 October 1923, with Mustafa Kemal as its first President. Although Abdulmejid II was a figurehead lacking any political power, he remained in his position of Caliph until the office of the Caliphate was abolished by the TBMM on 3 March 1924. Mehmed VI later tried unsuccessfully to reinstall himself as caliph in the Hejaz.

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References

[[#Sta01. Stavrides 2001]], p. 21
[[#Gla96. Glazer 1996]], "War of Independence"
[[#Str10. Strauss 2010]], pp. 21–51.
{{Latins in the Levant
[[#Fin05. Findley 2005]], p. 115
[[#Toy74. Toynbee 1974]], pp. 22–23
[[#Sta01. Stavrides 2001]], p. 20
[[#Qua05. Quataert 2005]], p. 93
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