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List of fusion experiments

List of efforts toward artificial nuclear fusion

TFTR, used for magnetic confinement fusion experiments, which produced of fusion power in 1994]] Experiments directed toward developing fusion power are invariably done with dedicated machines which can be classified according to the principles they use to confine the plasma fuel and keep it hot.

The major division is between magnetic confinement and inertial confinement. In magnetic confinement, the tendency of the hot plasma to expand is counteracted by the Lorentz force between currents in the plasma and magnetic fields produced by external coils. The particle densities tend to be in the range of to and the linear dimensions in the range of . The particle and energy confinement times may range from under a millisecond to over a second, but the configuration itself is often maintained through input of particles, energy, and current for times that are hundreds or thousands of times longer. Some concepts are capable of maintaining a plasma indefinitely.

In contrast, with inertial confinement, there is nothing to counteract the expansion of the plasma. The confinement time is simply the time it takes the plasma pressure to overcome the inertia of the particles, hence the name. The densities tend to be in the range of to and the plasma radius in the range of 1 to 100 micrometers. These conditions are obtained by irradiating a millimeter-sized solid pellet with a nanosecond laser or ion pulse. The outer layer of the pellet is ablated, providing a reaction force that compresses the central 10% of the fuel by a factor of 10 or 20 to 103 or times solid density. These microplasmas disperse in a time measured in nanoseconds. For a fusion power reactor, a repetition rate of several per second will be needed.

Magnetic confinement

Within the field of magnetic confinement experiments, there is a basic division between toroidal and open magnetic field topologies. Generally speaking, it is easier to contain a plasma in the direction perpendicular to the field than parallel to it. Parallel confinement can be solved either by bending the field lines back on themselves into circles or, more commonly, toroidal surfaces, or by constricting the bundle of field lines at both ends, which causes some of the particles to be reflected by the mirror effect. The toroidal geometries can be further subdivided according to whether the machine itself has a toroidal geometry, i.e., a solid core through the center of the plasma. The alternative is to dispense with a solid core and rely on currents in the plasma to produce the toroidal field.

Mirror machines have advantages in a simpler geometry and a better potential for direct conversion of particle energy to electricity. They generally require higher magnetic fields than toroidal machines, but the biggest problem has turned out to be confinement. For good confinement there must be more particles moving perpendicular to the field than there are moving parallel to the field. Such a non-Maxwellian velocity distribution is, however, very difficult to maintain and energetically costly.

The mirrors' advantage of simple machine geometry is maintained in machines which produce compact toroids, but there are potential disadvantages for stability in not having a central conductor and there is generally less possibility to control (and thereby optimize) the magnetic geometry. Compact toroid concepts are generally less well developed than those of toroidal machines. While this does not necessarily mean that they cannot work better than mainstream concepts, the uncertainty involved is much greater.

Somewhat in a class by itself is the Z-pinch, which has circular field lines. This was one of the first concepts tried, but it did not prove very successful. Furthermore, there was never a convincing concept for turning the pulsed machine requiring electrodes into a practical reactor.

The dense plasma focus is a controversial and "non-mainstream" device that relies on currents in the plasma to produce a toroid. It is a pulsed device that depends on a plasma that is not in equilibrium and has the potential for direct conversion of particle energy to electricity. Experiments are ongoing to test relatively new theories to determine if the device has a future.

Toroidal machine

Toroidal machines can be axially symmetric, like the tokamak and the reversed field pinch (RFP), or asymmetric, like the stellarator. The additional degree of freedom gained by giving up toroidal symmetry might ultimately be usable to produce better confinement, but the cost is complexity in the engineering, the theory, and the experimental diagnostics. Stellarators typically have a periodicity, e.g. a fivefold rotational symmetry. The RFP, despite some theoretical advantages such as a low magnetic field at the coils, has not proven very successful.

Tokamak

Device name	Status	Construction	Operation	Location	Organisation	Major/minor radius	B-field	Plasma current	Purpose	Image
last1 = Smirnov	first1 = V.P.	title = Tokamak foundation in USSR/Russia 1950–1990	journal = Nuclear Fusion	date = 30 December 2009	volume = 50	issue = 1	article-number = 014003	issn = 0029-5515	eissn = 1741-4326	doi = 10.1088/0029-5515/50/1/014003	s2cid = 17487157	doi-access = free }}		1957	1958–1959	SOV Moscow	Kurchatov Institute	/			First tokamak	[[File:Tokamak T-1.jpg	frameless	154x154px	T-1]]
T-2T-2 (Tokamak-2)	→FT-1	1959	1960–1970	SOV Moscow	Kurchatov Institute	/
T-3 (Tokamak-3)		1960	1962–?	SOV Moscow	Kurchatov Institute	/			Overcame Bohm diffusion by a factor of 10, temperature , confinement time
T-5 (Tokamak-5)		?	1962–1970	SOV Moscow	Kurchatov Institute	/			Investigation of plasma equilibrium in vertical and horizontal direction
TM-1		?	?	SOV Moscow	Kurchatov Institute
TM-2		?	1965	SOV Moscow	Kurchatov Institute
TM-3		?	1970	SOV Moscow	Kurchatov Institute
FT-1FT-1	→CASTOR	T-2	1972–2002	SOV Saint Petersburg	Ioffe Institute	/
STST (Symmetric Tokamak)		Model C	1970–1974	USA Princeton	Princeton Plasma Physics Laboratory	/			First American tokamak, converted from Model C stellarator
T-6 (Tokamak-6)		?	1970–1974	SOV Moscow	Kurchatov Institute	/
TUMAN-2, 2A		?	1971–1985	SOV Saint Petersburg	Ioffe Institute	/
ORMAK (Oak Ridge tokaMAK)			1971–1976	USA Oak Ridge	Oak Ridge National Laboratory	/			First to achieve plasma temperature	[[File:ORMAK (46436229152).jpg	frameless	154x154px	ORMAK plasma vessel]]
Doublet II			1972–1974	USA San Diego	General Atomics	/
ATC (Adiabatic Toroidal Compressor)		1971–1972	1972–1976	USA Princeton	Princeton Plasma Physics Laboratory	/			Demonstrate compressional plasma heating	[[File:HD.6D.745 (13471450163).jpg	frameless	154x154px	Schematic of ATC]]
T-9 (Tokamak-9)		?	1972–1977	SOV Moscow	Kurchatov Institute	/
TO-1		?	1972–1978	SOV Moscow	Kurchatov Institute	/
Alcator A (Alto Campo Toro)		?	1972–1978	USA Cambridge	Massachusetts Institute of Technology	/
JFT-2 (JAERI Fusion Torus 2)		?	1972–1982	JP Naka	Japan Atomic Energy Research Institute	/
Turbulent Tokamak Frascati (TTF, torello)			1973	ITA Frascati	ENEA	/			Study of turbulent plasma heating
Pulsator		1970–1973	1973–1979	DEU Garching	Max Planck Institute for Plasma Physics	/			Discovery of high-density operation with tokamaks
TFR (Tokamak de Fontenay-aux-Roses)			1973–1984	FRA Fontenay-aux-Roses	CEA	/
T-4 (Tokamak-4)		?	1974–1978	SOV Moscow	Kurchatov Institute	/			Observed fast thermal quench before major plasma disruptions
Doublet IIA			1974–1979	USA San Diego	General Atomics	/
Petula-B		?	1974–1986	FRA Grenoble	CEA	/
T-10 (Tokamak-10)			1975–	SOV Moscow	Kurchatov Institute	/			Largest tokamak of its time	[[File:Polytec TOKAMAK model (4260325496).jpg	frameless	154x154px	Model of the T-10]]
T-11 (Tokamak-11)		?	1975–1984	SOV Moscow	Kurchatov Institute	/
PLT (Princeton Large Torus)		1972–1975	1975–1986	USA Princeton	Princeton Plasma Physics Laboratory	/			First to achieve plasma current	[[File:HD.6B.701 (10348295326).jpg	frameless	154x154px	Construction of the Princeton Large Torus]]
Divertor Injection Tokamak Experiment (DITE)			1975–1989	UK Culham	United Kingdom Atomic Energy Authority	/
JIPP T-II		?	1976	JP Nagoya	Nagoya University	/
TNT-A		?	1976	JP Tokyo	Tokyo University	/
T-8 (Tokamak-8)		?	1976–?	SOV Moscow	Kurchatov Institute	/			First D-shaped tokamak
author=Taylor, R. J.	author2=Lee, P.	author3=Luhmann, N. C. Jr	date=1981	title=ICRF heating, particle transport and fluctuations in tokamaks	url=http://plasma.caltech.edu/Rwgpubs/Pub66.pdf	archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220225031806/http://plasma.caltech.edu/Rwgpubs/Pub66.pdf	archive-date=2022-02-25}}		?	1976–1983?	USA Los Angeles	UCLA	/			Plasma impurity control and diagnostic development
Macrotor		?	1970s–80s	USA Los Angeles	UCLA	/			Understanding plasma rotation driven by radial current
TUMAN-3		?	1977–
(1990–, 3M)	SOV Saint Petersburg	Ioffe Institute	/			Study adiabatic compression, RF and NB heating, H-mode and parametric instability
last1 = Argenti	first1 = D.	last2 = Bonizzoni	first2 = G.	last3 = Cirant	first3 = S.	last4 = Corti	first4 = S.	last5 = Grosso	first5 = G.	last6 = Lampis	first6 = G.	last7 = Rossi	first7 = L.	last8 = Carretta	first8 = U.	last9 = Jacchia	first9 = A.	last10 = De Luca	first10 = F.	last11 = Fontanesi	first11 = M.	title = The Thor tokamak experiment	journal = Il Nuovo Cimento B	date = June 1981	volume = 63	issue = 2	pages = 471–486	eissn = 1826-9877	doi = 10.1007/BF02755093	bibcode = 1981NCimB..63..471A	s2cid = 123205206 }}			?	ITA Milano	University of Milano	/
FT (Frascati Tokamak)			1978	ITA Frascati	ENEA	/
PDX (Poloidal Divertor Experiment)		?	1978–1983	USA Princeton	Princeton Plasma Physics Laboratory	/
ISX-B		?	1978–1984	USA Oak Ridge	Oak Ridge National Laboratory	/			Attempt high-beta operation
Doublet III			1978–1985	USA San Diego	General Atomics	/
T-12 (Tokamak-12)		?	1978–1985	SOV Moscow	Kurchatov Institute	/
Alcator C (Alto Campo Toro)		?	1978–1986	USA Cambridge	Massachusetts Institute of Technology	/
T-7T-7 (Tokamak-7)	→HT-7	?	1979–1985	SOV Moscow	Kurchatov Institute	/			First tokamak with superconducting toroidal field coils
ASDEX (Axially Symmetric Divertor Experiment)	→HL-2A	1973–1980	1980–1990	DEU Garching	Max-Planck-Institut für Plasmaphysik	/			Discovery of the H-mode in 1982
FT-2		?	1980–	SOV Saint Petersburg	Ioffe Institute	/			H-mode physics, LH heating
TEXTOR (Tokamak Experiment for Technology Oriented Research)		1976–1980	1981–2013	DEU Jülich	Forschungszentrum Jülich	/			Study plasma-wall interactions
TFTR (Tokamak Fusion Test Reactor)		1980–1982	1982–1997	USA Princeton	Princeton Plasma Physics Laboratory	/			Attempted scientific break-even, reached record fusion power of and temperature of	[[File:U.S. Department of Energy - Science - 114 035 002 (14281232230).jpg	frameless	154x154px	TFTR plasma vessel]]
Tokamak de Varennes (TdeV)		?	1983–1997	CAN Montreal	National Research Council Canada	/
JFT-2M (JAERI Fusion Torus 2M)		?	1983–2004	JP Naka	Japan Atomic Energy Research Institute	/
JET (Joint European Torus)		1978–1983	1983–2023	UK Culham	United Kingdom Atomic Energy Authority	/			Records for fusion output power (1997), fusion energy (2023)	[[File:JET cutaway drawing 1980.jpg	frameless	154x154px	JET in 1991]]
Novillo		NOVA-II	1983–2004	MEX Mexico City	Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Nucleares	/			Study plasma-wall interactions
JT-60 (Japan Torus-60)	→JT-60U		1985–1989	JP Naka	Japan Atomic Energy Research Institute	/			High-beta steady-state operation, highest fusion triple product	[[File:Soldering practice object for tokamak construction, in park of Tsukuba Expo Center 4.jpg	frameless	154x154px	JT-60 vacuum vessel]]
CCT (Continuous Current Tokamak)		?	1986–199?	USA Los Angeles	UCLA	/			H-mode studies
DIII-D		1986	1986–	USA San Diego	General Atomics	/			Tokamak Optimization	[[File:2017 TOCAMAC Fusion Chamber N0689.jpg	frameless	154x154px	DIII-D vacuum vessel]]
STOR-M (Saskatchewan Torus-Modified)			1987–	CAN Saskatoon	Plasma Physics Laboratory (Saskatchewan)	/			Study plasma heating and anomalous transport
T-15	→T-15MD	1983–1988	1988–1995	SOV Moscow	Kurchatov Institute	/			First superconducting tokamak, pulse duration	[[File:1987 CPA 5891.jpg	frameless	154x154px	T-15 on a stamp]]
Tore Supra	→WEST		1988–2011	FRA Cadarache	Département de Recherches sur la Fusion Contrôlée	/			Large superconducting tokamak with active cooling
ADITYA (tokamak)			1989–	IND Gandhinagar	Institute for Plasma Research	/
COMPASS (COMPact ASSembly)		1980–	1989–	CZ Prague	Institute of Plasma Physics, Czech Academy of Sciences	/			Plasma physics studies for ITER	[[File:COMPASStokamak chamber.jpg	frameless	154x154px	COMPASS plasma chamber]]
FTU (Frascati Tokamak Upgrade)			1990–	ITA Frascati	ENEA	/
START (Small Tight Aspect Ratio Tokamak)	→Proto-Sphera		1990–1998	UK Culham	United Kingdom Atomic Energy Authority	/?			First full-sized Spherical Tokamak
JT-60UJT-60U (Japan Torus-60 Upgrade)		1989–1991	1991–2008	JP Naka	Japan Atomic Energy Research Institute	/			investigate energy confinement near the breakeven condition
ASDEX Upgrade (Axially Symmetric Divertor Experiment)			1991–	DEU Garching	Max-Planck-Institut für Plasmaphysik	/				[[File:ASDEX Upgrade model.jpg	frameless	154x154px	ASDEX Upgrade plasma vessel segment]]
Alcator C-Mod (Alto Campo Toro)		1986–	1991–2016	USA Cambridge	Massachusetts Institute of Technology	/			Record plasma pressure	[[File:Alcator C-Mod Fisheye from Fport.jpg	frameless	154x154px	Alcator C-Mod plasma vessel]]
ISTTOK (Instituto Superior Técnico TOKamak)			1992–	POR Lisbon	Instituto de Plasmas e Fusão Nuclear	/
TCV (Tokamak à Configuration Variable)			1992–	CH Lausanne	École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne	/			Confinement studies	[[File:Tcv int.jpg	frameless	154x154px	TCV plasma vessel]]
HBT-EP (High Beta Tokamak-Extended Pulse)			1993–	US New York City	Columbia University Plasma Physics Laboratory	/			High-Beta tokamak	[[File:HBT-EP shells and sensors.jpg	frameless	154x154px	HBT-EP sketch]]
HT-7HT-7 (Hefei Tokamak-7)		1991–1994 (T-7)	1995–2013	CHN Hefei	Hefei Institutes of Physical Science	/			China's first superconducting tokamak
Pegasus Toroidal Experiment		?	1996–	USA Madison	University of Wisconsin–Madison	/			Extremely low aspect ratio	[[File:Pegasus Toroidal Experiment (6140926094).jpg	frameless	154x154px	Pegasus Toroidal Experiment]]
NSTX (National Spherical Torus Experiment)			1999–	USA Plainsboro Township	Princeton Plasma Physics Laboratory	/			Study the spherical tokamak concept	[[File:U.S. Department of Energy - Science - 114 003 003 (9939887676).jpg	frameless	154x154px	National Spherical Torus Experiment]]
Globus-M (UNU Globus-M)			1999–	RUS Saint Petersburg	Ioffe Institute	/			Study the spherical tokamak concept
ET (Electric Tokamak)	→ETPD	1998	1999–2006	USA Los Angeles	UCLA	/			Largest tokamak of its time	[[File:The Electric Tokamak.jpg	frameless	154x154px	The Electric Tokamak.jpg]]
TCABR (Tokamak Chauffage Alfvén Brésilien)		1980–1999	1999–	SWI Lausanne,
BRA Sao Paulo	University of Sao Paulo	/			Most important tokamak in the southern hemisphere	[[File:TCABR lab.jpg	frameless	153x153px]]
CDX-U (Current Drive Experiment-Upgrade)	→LTX		2000–2005	USA Princeton	Princeton Plasma Physics Laboratory	/?			Study Lithium in plasma walls	[[File:U.S. Department of Energy - Science - 413 002 003 (9952381694).jpg	frameless	154x154px	CDX-U setup]]
MAST (Mega-Ampere Spherical Tokamak)	→MAST-Upgrade	1997–1999	2000–2013	UK Culham	United Kingdom Atomic Energy Authority	/			Investigate spherical tokamak for fusion	[[File:MAST plasma image.jpg	frameless	154x154px	Plasma in MAST]]
HL-2AHL-2A (Huan-Liuqi-2A)		2000–2002	2002–2018	CHN Chengdu	Southwestern Institute of Physics	/			H-mode physics, ELM mitigation
SST-1 (Steady State Superconducting Tokamak)		2001–	2005–	IND Gandhinagar	Institute for Plasma Research	/			Produce a elongated double null divertor plasma
EAST (Experimental Advanced Superconducting Tokamak)		2000–2005	2006–	CHN Hefei	Hefei Institutes of Physical Science	/			Superheated plasma for over and at	[[File:EAST-tokamak sketch.png	frameless	154x154px	Drawing of EAST]]
J-TEXT (Joint TEXT)		TEXT (Texas EXperimental Tokamak)	2007–	CHN Wuhan	Huazhong University of Science and Technology	/			Develop plasma control
KSTAR (Korea Superconducting Tokamak Advanced Research)		1998–2007	2008–	KOR Daejeon	National Fusion Research Institute	/			Tokamak with fully superconducting magnets, -long operation at	[[File:KSTAR tokamak.jpg	frameless	154x154px	KSTAR]]
LTXLTX (Lithium Tokamak Experiment)		2005–2008	2008–	USA Princeton	Princeton Plasma Physics Laboratory	/?			Study Lithium in plasma walls	[[File:U.S. Department of Energy - Science - 114 001 004 (29677232615).jpg	frameless	154x154px	Lithium Tokamak Experiment plasma vessel]]
QUEST (Q-shu University Experiment with Steady-State Spherical Tokamak)			2008–	JP Kasuga	Kyushu University	/			Study steady state operation of a Spherical Tokamak	[[File:QUEST tokamak (cropped).jpg	frameless	154x154px	QUEST]]
Kazakhstan Tokamak for Material testing (KTM)		2000–2010	2010–	KAZ Kurchatov	National Nuclear Center of the Republic of Kazakhstan	/			Testing of wall and divertor
ST25-HTS		2012–2015	2015–	UK Culham	Tokamak Energy Ltd	/			Steady state plasma	[[File:Tokamak ST25 rf discharge.jpg	frameless	154x154px	ST25-HTS with plasma]]
WESTWEST (Tungsten Environment in Steady-state Tokamak)		2013–2016	2016–	FRA Cadarache	Département de Recherches sur la Fusion Contrôlée	/			Superconducting tokamak with active cooling	[[File:WEST fish-eye lens.jpg	frameless	154x154px	WEST chamber]]
ST40		2017–2018	2018–	UK Didcot	Tokamak Energy Ltd	/			First high field spherical tokamak, reached plasma	[[File:Tokamak ST40 engineering drawing.jpg	frameless	154x154px	ST40 engineering drawing]]
MAST-UpgradeMAST-U (Mega-Ampere Spherical Tokamak Upgrade)		2013–2019	2020–	UK Culham	United Kingdom Atomic Energy Authority	/			Test new exhaust concepts for a spherical tokamak
HL-3 / HL-2M (Huan-Liuqi-2M)		2018–2019	2020–	CHN Leshan	Southwestern Institute of Physics	/			Elongated plasma with	[[File:HL-2M tokamak CAD.jpg	frameless	154x154px	HL-2M]]
JT-60SAJT-60SA (Japan Torus-60 super, advanced)		2013–2020	2021–	JP Naka	Japan Atomic Energy Research Institute	/			Optimise plasma configurations for ITER and DEMO with full non-inductive steady-state operation	[[File:JT-60SA Reactor Core.webp	frameless	154x154px	JT-60SA]]
T-15MDT-15MD		2010–2020	2021–	RUS Moscow	Kurchatov Institute	/			Hybrid fusion/fission reactor	[[File:T-15MD Toroidal winding and poloidal field coils.jpg	frameless	154x154px	T-15MD coil system]]
IGNITOR	2022	-	-	RUS Troitzk	ENEA	/			Compact fusion reactor with self-sustained plasma and of planned fusion power
HH70 (HongHuang 70)		2022–2024	2024–	ChinaShanghai	Energy Singularity	/			REBCO High-temperature superconducting coils
SPARC		2021–	2026?	USA Devens, MA	Commonwealth Fusion Systems and MIT Plasma Science and Fusion Center	/			Compact, high-field tokamak with ReBCO coils and planned fusion power	[[File:Sparc february 2018.jpg	frameless	154x154px	Artist's impression of SPARC]]
ITER		2013–2034?	2034?	FRA Cadarache	ITER Council	/		?	Demonstrate feasibility of fusion on a power-plant scale with fusion power	[[File:ITER Exhibit (01810402) (12219071813) (cropped).jpg	frameless	154x154px	Small-scale model of ITER]]
Burning Plasma Experimental Superconducting Tokamak (BEST)		2023–2027?	2027?	CHN Hefei	Institute of Energy, Hefei Comprehensive National Science Center	/	?	?	Intermediate step between EAST and CFETR	http://www.xdgro.com/storage/uploads/pictures/071xKEtOWJrYhWzlQhCX3gUwgkOefNdlyhaXMabV.png
DTT (Divertor Tokamak Test facility)		2022–2029?	2029?	ITA Frascati	ENEA	/	?	?	Superconducting tokamak to study power exhaust
last1=Srinivasan	first1=R.	title=Design and analysis of SST-2 fusion reactor	journal=Fusion Engineering and Design	volume=112	year=2016	pages=240–243	issn=0920-3796	doi=10.1016/j.fusengdes.2015.12.044	bibcode=2016FusED.112..240S }}			2027?	IND Gujarat	Institute for Plasma Research	/			Full-fledged fusion reactor with tritium breeding and up to 500 MW output
last1 = Zhuang	first1 = G.	last2 = Li	first2 = G.Q.	last3 = Li	first3 = J.	last4 = Wan	first4 = Y.X.	last5 = Liu	first5 = Y.	last6 = Wang	first6 = X.L.	last7 = Song	first7 = Y.T.	last8 = Chan	first8 = V.	last9 = Yang	first9 = Q.W.	last10 = Wan	first10 = B.N.	last11 = Duan	first11 = X.R.	last12 = Fu	first12 = P.	last13 = Xiao	first13 = B.J.	title = Progress of the CFETR design	journal = Nuclear Fusion	date = 5 June 2019	volume = 59	issue = 11	page = 112010	issn = 0029-5515	eissn = 1741-4326	doi = 10.1088/1741-4326/ab0e27	bibcode = 2019NucFu..59k2010Z	s2cid = 127585754 }}		≥2024	2030?	CHN	Institute of Plasma Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences	/ ?	?	?	Bridge gaps between ITER and DEMO, planned fusion power
ST-F1 (Spherical Tokamak - Fusion 1)		2027?		UK Didcot	Tokamak Energy Ltd	/ ?			Spherical tokamak with Q=3 and hundreds of MW planned electrical output (no longer mentioned by company as of 2024)
STX (ST80-HTS)		2026?	2030?	UK Culham	Tokamak Energy Ltd				Spherical tokamak capable of 15min-pulsed operation
ST-E1		2030s?		UK Culham	Tokamak Energy Ltd				Spherical tokamak with planned net electric output
STEP (Spherical Tokamak for Energy Production)		2032-2040	2040 D-D
Mid 2040s DT Campaign	UK West Burton, Nottinghamshire	United Kingdom Atomic Energy Authority	/ ?	?	?	Spherical tokamak with planned electrical output
JA-DEMO		2030?	2050?	JP	?	/			Prototype for development of Commercial Fusion Reactors Fusion output.
K-DEMO (Korean fusion demonstration tokamak reactor)		2037?		KOR	National Fusion Research Institute	/		?	Prototype for the development of commercial fusion reactors with around of fusion power	[[File:K-DEMO device core design features.jpg	frameless	154x154px	Engineering drawing of planned KDEMO]]
DEMO (DEMOnstration Power Station)		2040?	2050?	?		/ ?	?	?	Prototype for a commercial fusion reactor	[[File:EUROfusion schematic diagram of fusion power plant.jpg	frameless	154x154px	Artist's conception of DEMO]]

Stellarator

Device name	Status	Construction	Operation	Type	Location	Organisation	Major/minor radius	B-field	Purpose	Image
Model A		1952–1953	1953–?	Figure-8	USA Princeton	Princeton Plasma Physics Laboratory	/		First stellarator, table-top device
Model B		1953–1954	1954–1959	Figure-8	USA Princeton	Princeton Plasma Physics Laboratory	/		Development of plasma diagnostics
Model B-1			?–1959	Figure-8	USA Princeton	Princeton Plasma Physics Laboratory	/		Yielded plasma temperatures, showed cooling by X-ray radiation from impurities
Model B-2			1957	Figure-8	USA Princeton	Princeton Plasma Physics Laboratory	/		Electron temperatures up to
Model B-3		1957	1958–	Figure-8	USA Princeton	Princeton Plasma Physics Laboratory	/		Last figure-8 device, confinement studies of ohmically heated plasma
Model B-64		1955	1955	Square	USA Princeton	Princeton Plasma Physics Laboratory	0.5 m/
Model B-65		1957	1957–1960	Racetrack	USA Princeton	Princeton Plasma Physics Laboratory	/		First use of toroidal-field divertor; demonstrated RF heating
Model B-66		1958	1958–1961	Racetrack	USA Princeton	Princeton Plasma Physics Laboratory	/		Showed large pump-out losses
Wendelstein 1-A			1960	Racetrack	DEU Garching	Max-Planck-Institut für Plasmaphysik	/		ℓ=3 showed that stellarators can overcome Bohm diffusion, "Munich mystery"
Wendelstein 1-B			1960	Racetrack	DEU Garching	Max-Planck-Institut für Plasmaphysik	/		ℓ=2
Model CModel C	→ST	1957–1961	1961–1969	Racetrack	USA Princeton	Princeton Plasma Physics Laboratory	/		Suffered from large plasma losses by Bohm diffusion through "pump-out"
L-1		1963	1963–1971	round	SOV Moscow	Lebedev Physical Institute	/		First Soviet stellarator, overcame Bohm diffusion
SIRIUS		1955–1959	1964–1975?	Racetrack	SOV Kharkiv	Kharkiv Institute of Physics and Technology (KIPT)	/		Investigate plasma confinement with helical coil geometry
TOR-1		1967	1967–1973		SOV Moscow	Lebedev Physical Institute	/
TOR-2		?	1967–1973		SOV Moscow	Lebedev Physical Institute	/
Uragan-1		1960–1967	1967–?	Racetrack	SOV Kharkiv	National Science Center, Kharkiv Institute of Physics and Technology (NSC KIPT)	/		Overcame Bohm-diffusion by a factor of 30
last1 = Lees	first1 = D.J.	title = Culham stellarator programme, 1965–1980	journal = Nuclear Fusion	date = 1 September 1985	volume = 25	issue = 9	pages = 1259–1265	issn = 0029-5515	eissn = 1741-4326	doi = 10.1088/0029-5515/25/9/044	s2cid = 119660036 }}		?	1967–?	UK Culham	United Kingdom Atomic Energy Authority	/	Study confinement of electrons in a high-shear stellarator
TWIST		?	1967–?		UK Culham	United Kingdom Atomic Energy Authority	/		Study turbulent heating
Proto-CLEO		?	1968–?	single-turn helical winding inside toroidal field conductors	UK Culham,
USA Madison	United Kingdom Atomic Energy Authority	/		confirmed plasma confinement times of neoclassical theory
TORSO		?	1972–?	Ultimate torsatron	UK Culham	United Kingdom Atomic Energy Authority	/
CLEO		?	1974–?		UK Culham	United Kingdom Atomic Energy Authority	/		Study of particle transport and beta limits, reached similar performance as tokamaks
Wendelstein 2-A		1965–1968	1968–1974	Heliotron	DEU Garching	Max-Planck-Institut für Plasmaphysik	/		Good plasma confinement	[[File:DMM 1988-643 Fusionsexperiment Wendelstein-IIa.jpg	frameless	154x154px	Wendelstein 2-A]]
Saturn		1970	1970–?	Torsatron	SOV Kharkiv	Kharkiv Institute of Physics and Technology	/		first Torsatron, ℓ=3, m=8 field periods, base for several torsatrons at KIPT
Wendelstein 2-B		?–1970	1971–?	Heliotron	DEU Garching	Max-Planck-Institut für Plasmaphysik	/		Demonstrated similar performance as tokamaks	[[File:W7x 026.jpg	frameless	154x154px	Wendelstein 2-B]]
Vint-20		1972	1973–?	Torsatron	SOV Kharkiv	Kharkiv Institute of Physics and Technology	/		single-pole ℓ=1, m=13 field periods
L-2		?	1975–?		SOV Moscow	Lebedev Physical Institute	/
WEGA (Wendelstein Experiment in Greifswald für die Ausbildung)	→HIDRA	1972–1975	1975–2013	Classical stellarator	DEU Greifswald	Max-Planck-Institut für Plasmaphysik	/		Test lower hybrid heating	[[File:WEGA-Stuttgart.jpg	frameless	154x154px	WEGA]]
Wendelstein 7-A		?	1975–1985	Classical stellarator	DEU Garching	Max-Planck-Institut für Plasmaphysik	/		First "pure" stellarator without plasma current, solved stellarator heating problem
Heliotron-E		?	1980–?	Heliotron	JP		/
Heliotron-DR		?	1981–?	Heliotron	JP		/
Uragan-3 ()		?	1982–?
M: 1990–	Torsatron	UKR Kharkiv	National Science Center, Kharkiv Institute of Physics and Technology (NSC KIPT)	/		?
Auburn Torsatron (AT)		?	1984–1990	Torsatron	USA Auburn	Auburn University	/			[[File:Auburn Torsatron.jpg	frameless	154x154px	Auburn Torsatron]]
Wendelstein 7-AS		1982–1988	1988–2002	Modular, advanced stellarator	DEU Garching	Max-Planck-Institut für Plasmaphysik	/		First computer-optimized stellarator, first H-mode in a stellarator in 1992	[[File:Garching Experiment Wendelstein 7-AS.jpg	frameless	154x154px	Wendelstein 7-AS]]
Advanced Toroidal Facility (ATF)		1984–1988	1988–1994	Torsatron	USA Oak Ridge	Oak Ridge National Laboratory	/		First large American stellarator after Tokamak stampede, high-beta operation, 1h plasma operation	[[File:Advanced Toroidal Facility, 1986 (49743086486).png	frameless	154x154px	Advanced Toroidal Facility]]
Compact Helical System (CHS)		?	1989–?	Heliotron	JP Toki	National Institute for Fusion Science	/
Compact Auburn Torsatron (CAT)		?–1990	1990–2000	Torsatron	USA Auburn	Auburn University	/		Study magnetic flux surfaces	[[File:CATphoto2.jpg	frameless	154x154px	Compact Auburn Torsatron]]
H-1 (Heliac-1)			1992–	Heliac	AUS Canberra,
CHN	Research School of Physical Sciences and Engineering, Australian National University	/		shipped to China in 2017	[[File:H1 Heliac.jpg	frameless	154x154px	H-1NF plasma vessel]]
TJ-K (Tokamak de la Junta Kiel)		TJ-IU (1999)	1994–	Torsatron	DEU Kiel, Stuttgart	University of Stuttgart	/		One helical and two vertical coil sets; Teaching; moved from Kiel to Stuttgart in 2005
TJ-II (Tokamak de la Junta II)		1991–1996	1997–	flexible Heliac	ESP Madrid	National Fusion Laboratory, Centro de Investigaciones Energéticas, Medioambientales y Tecnológicas	/		Study plasma in flexible configuration	[[File:TJ-II model including plasma, coils and vacuum vessel.jpg	frameless	154x154px	CAD drawing of TJ-II]]
LHD (Large Helical Device)		1990–1998	1998–	Heliotron	JP Toki	National Institute for Fusion Science	/		Demonstrated long-term operation of large superconducting coils	[[File:LHD Querschnitt.png	frameless	154x154px	LHD cross section]]
HSX (Helically Symmetric Experiment)			1999–	Modular, quasi-helically symmetric	USA Madison	University of Wisconsin–Madison	/		Investigate plasma transport in quasi-helically-symmetric field, similar to tokamaks	[[File:HSX picture.jpg	frameless	154x154px	HSX with clearly visible non-planar coils]]
Heliotron J			2000–	Heliotron	JP Kyoto	Institute of Advanced Energy	/		Study helical-axis heliotron configuration
Columbia Non-neutral Torus (CNT)		?	2004–	Circular interlocked coils	USA New York City	Columbia University	/		Study of non-neutral (mostly electron) plasmas
Uragan-2(M)		1988–2006	2006–	Heliotron, Torsatron	UKR Kharkiv	National Science Center, Kharkiv Institute of Physics and Technology (NSC KIPT)	/		ℓ=2 Torsatron
Quasi-poloidal stellarator (QPS)		2001–2007	–	Modular	USA Oak Ridge	Oak Ridge National Laboratory	/		Stellarator research	[[File:Quasi-Poloidal Stellarator 3d render.jpg	frameless	154x154px	Engineering drawing of the QPS]]
NCSX (National Compact Stellarator Experiment)		2004–2008	–	Helias	USA Princeton	Princeton Plasma Physics Laboratory	/		High-β stability	[[File:NCSXmachine.jpg	frameless	154x154px	CAD drawing of NCSX]]
Compact Toroidal Hybrid (CTH)		?	2007?–	Torsatron	USA Auburn	Auburn University	/		Hybrid stellarator/tokamak	[[File:Compact Toroidal Hybrid at Auburn University.jpg	frameless	154x154px	CTH]]
HIDRAHIDRA (Hybrid Illinois Device for Research and Applications)		2013–2014 (WEGA)	2014–	?	USA Urbana, IL	University of Illinois	/		Stellarator and tokamak in one device, capable of long pulse steady-state operation; study plasma-wall interactions	[[File:HIDRA.jpg	frameless	154x154px	HIDRA after its reassembly in Illinois]]
UST_2		2013	2014–	modular three period quasi-isodynamic	ESP Madrid	Charles III University of Madrid	/		3D-printed stellarator	[[File:UST 2 stellarator concept and design.jpg	frameless	154x154px	UST_2 design concept]]
Wendelstein 7-X		1996–2022	2015–	Helias	DEU Greifswald	Max-Planck-Institut für Plasmaphysik	/		Steady-state plasma in large fully optimized stellarator	[[File:Schematic diagram of Wendelstein 7-X.jpg	frameless	154x154px	Schematic diagram of Wendelstein 7-X]]
SCR-1 (Stellarator of Costa Rica)		2011–2015	2016–	Modular	CRI Cartago	Costa Rica Institute of Technology	/			[[File:SCR-1 vacuum vessel drawing.jpg	frameless	154x154px	SCR-1 vacuum vessel drawing]]
MUSE		2022–2023	2023–	Quasiaxi-symmetrical	USA Princeton	Princeton Plasma Physics Laboratory	/		First stellarator with permanent magnets	[[File:Design and construction of the MUSE permanent magnet stellarator - Fig21 (cropped).jpg	frameless	154x154px	MUSE]]
CFQS (Chinese First Quasi-Axisymmetric Stellarator)		2017–2024	2024–	Helias	CHN Chengdu	Southwest Jiaotong University, National Institute for Fusion Science in Japan	/		m=2 quasi-axisymmetric stellarator, modular	[[File:CFQS coils Bfield Su2020.jpg	frameless	154x154px	CFQS coils and field]]
EFPP (European Fusion Power Plant)		2030 ?	2045 ?	Helias	DEU	Gauss Fusion		7– ?	Fusion power plant with 2– output

[[Magnetic mirror]]

Tabletop/Toytop, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore CA.
DCX/DCX-2, Oak Ridge National Laboratory
OGRA (Odin GRAm neitronov v sutki, one gram of neutrons per day), Akademgorodok, Russia. A 20-meter-long pipe
Baseball I/Baseball II Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore CA.
2X/2XIII/2XIII-B, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore CA.
TMX, TMX-U Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore CA.
MFTF Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore CA.
Gas Dynamic Trap at Budker Institute of Nuclear Physics, Akademgorodok, Russia.

Toroidal [[Z-pinch]]

Perhapsatron (1953, USA)
ZETA (Zero Energy Thermonuclear Assembly) (1957, United Kingdom)

Reversed field pinch (RFP)

ETA-BETA II in Padua, Italy (1979–1989)
RFX (Reversed-Field eXperiment), Consorzio RFX, Padova, Italy
MST (Madison Symmetric Torus), University of Wisconsin–Madison, United States
T2R, Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, Sweden
TPE-RX, AIST, Tsukuba, Japan
KTX (Keda Torus eXperiment) in China (since 2015)

[[Spheromak]]

Sustained Spheromak Physics Experiment

[[Field-reversed configuration]] (FRC)

C-2 Tri Alpha Energy
C-2U Tri Alpha Energy
C-2W TAE Technologies
LSX University of Washington
IPA University of Washington
HF University of Washington
IPA- HF University of Washington

Other toroidal machines

TMP (Tor s Magnitnym Polem, torus with magnetic field): A porcelain torus with major radius , minor radius , toroidal field of and plasma current , predecessor to the first tokamak (1955, USSR)

Open field lines

[[Pinch (plasma physics)|Plasma pinch]]

Trisops – 2 facing theta-pinch guns
FF-2B, Lawrenceville Plasma Physics, United States

[[Levitated dipole]]

Levitated Dipole Experiment (LDX), MIT/Columbia University, United States

Inertial confinement

Main article: Inertial confinement fusion

Laser-driven

Device name	Status	Construction	Operation	Description	Peak laser power	Pulse energy	Fusion yield	Location	Organisation	Image
4 pi laser		196?		Semiconductor laser				USA Livermore	LLNL
Long path laser		1972	1972	First ICF laser with neodymium doped glass (Nd:glass) as lasing medium				USA Livermore	LLNL
Single Beam System (SBS) "67"		1971-1973	1973	Single-beam CO2 laser				USA Los Alamos	LANL
Double Bounce Illumination System (DBIS)		1972-1974	1974-1990	First private laser fusion effort, YAG laser, neutron yield to neutrons			100	u=nJ}}"	≈	USA Ann Arbor, Michigan	KMS Fusion	[[File:Double Bounce System KMS Fusion 1974.png	frameless	154x154px]]
MERLIN (Medium Energy Rod Laser Incorporating Neodymium), N78 laser		1972-1975	1975-?	Nd:glass laser				UK RAF Aldermaston	AWE	[[File:MERLIN target chamber.jpg	frameless	154x154px]]
Cyclops laser		1975	1975	Single-beam Nd:glass laser, prototype for Shiva				USA Livermore	LLNL	[[File:Cyclops laser 1975.jpg	frameless	154x154px]]
Janus laser		1974-1975	1975	Two-beam Nd:glass laser demonstrated laser compression and thermonuclear burn of deuterium–tritium				USA Livermore	LLNL	[[File:Janus laser 1975.jpg	frameless	154x154px]]
Gemini laser, Dual-Beam Module (DBM)		≤ 1975	1976	Two-beam CO2 laser, tests for Helios				USA Los Alamos	LANL
Argus laser		1976	1976-1981	Two-beam Nd:glass laser, advanced the study of laser-target interaction and paved the way for Shiva			3	u=mJ}}"	≈	USA Livermore	LLNL	[[File:Argus_laser_1976.jpg	frameless	154x154px]]
last1 = Danson	first1 = Colin N.	display-authors=etal	title = A history of high-power laser research and development in the United Kingdom	journal = High Power Laser Science and Engineering	date = 2021	volume = 9	article-number = e18	issn = 2095-4719	eissn = 2052-3289	doi = 10.1017/hpl.2021.5	bibcode = 2021HPLSE...9E..18D	s2cid = 233401354	doi-access = free	hdl = 10044/1/89337	hdl-access = free }}		1976-1977	1977-	8-beam Nd:glass laser, highest-intensity focussed laser in the world in 2005				UK Didcot	RAL	[[File:Green Lase.JPG	frameless	154x154px]]
ShivaShiva laser		1977	1977-1981	20-beam Nd:glass laser; proof-of-concept for Nova; fusion yield of 1011 neutrons; found that its infrared wavelength of 1062 nm was too long to achieve ignition			0.1	u=J}}"	≈	USA Livermore	LLNL	[[File:Shiva laser target chamber.jpg	frameless	154x154px]]
HeliosHelios laser, Eight-Beam System (EBS)		1975-1978	1978	8-beam CO2 laser; Media at Wikimedia Commons				USA Los Alamos	LANL	[[File:U.S. Department of Energy - Science - 282 005 003 (16388751641).jpg	frameless	154x154px]]
HELEN (High Energy Laser Embodying Neodymium)		1976-1979	1979-2009	Two-beam Nd:glass laser				UK Didcot	RAL	[[File:HELEN laser.jpg	frameless	154x154px]]
ISKRA-4		-1979	1979-	8-beam iodine gas laser, prototype for ISKRA-5				SOV Sarov	RFNC-VNIIEF
Sprite laser		1981-1983	1983-1995	249	u=nm}}				UK Didcot	RAL	[[File:Sprite e-beam pumped amplifier cell 1982.jpg	frameless	154x154px]]
Gekko XII			1983-	12-beam, Nd:glass laser				JP Osaka	Institute for Laser Engineering
Novette laser		1981-1983	1983-1984	Nd:glass laser to validate the Nova design, first X-ray laser				USALivermore	LLNL	[[File:U.S. Department of Energy - Science - 281 004 001 (16315143010).jpg	frameless	154x154px]]
Antares laser, High Energy Gas Laser Facility (HEGLF)			1983	24-beam largest CO2 laser ever built. Missed goal of scientific fusion breakeven, because production of hot electrons in target plasma due to long 10.6 μm wavelength of laser resulted in poor laser/plasma energy coupling				USA Los Alamos	LANL
PHAROS laser		198?		Two-beam Nd:glass laser				USA Washington D.C.	NRL
NovaNova laser			1984-1999	10-beam NIR and frequency-tripled 351 nm UV laser; fusion yield of 1013 neutrons; attempted ignition, but failed due to fluid instability of targets; led to construction of NIF				USALivermore	LLNL
ISKRA-5ISKRA-5		-1989		12-beam iodine gas laser, fusion yield 1010 to 1011 neutrons				SOV Sarov	RFNC-VNIIEF
Aurora laser		≤ 1988-1989	1990	96-beam Krypton fluoride laser	300	u=GW}}"	≈			USA Los Alamos	LANL
Shenguang-I			1990	1053	u=nm}}				China	Joint Laboratory of High Power Laser and Physics
PALS, formerly "Asterix IV"		-1991	1991-	Iodine gas laser, λ=				DEU Garching,
CZE Prague	MPQ, CAS	[[File:Prague asterix laser system.jpeg	frameless	154x154px]]
Trident laser		198?-1992	1992-2017	3-beam Nd:glass laser; 2 x 400 J beams, 100 ps – 1 us; 1 beam ~100 J, 600 fs – 2 ns				USA Los Alamos	LANL	[[File:Alfoil.jpg	frameless	154x154px]]
Nike laser		≤ 1991-1994	1994-	last1 = Lehecka	first1 = T.	last2 = Bodner	first2 = S.	last3 = Deniz	first3 = A. V.	last4 = Mostovych	first4 = A. N.	last5 = Obenschain	first5 = S. P.	last6 = Pawley	first6 = C. J.	last7 = Pronko	first7 = M. S.	title = The NIKE KrF laser fusion facility	journal = Journal of Fusion Energy	date = December 1991	volume = 10	issue = 4	pages = 301–303	issn = 0164-0313	eissn = 1572-9591	doi = 10.1007/BF01052128	bibcode = 1991JFuE...10..301L	s2cid = 122087249 }}	USA Washington, D.C.	NRL	[[File:Nike_laser_amplifier.jpg	frameless	154x154px]]
OMEGA laser		?-1995	1995-	60-beam UV frequency-tripled Nd:glass laser, fusion yield 1014 neutrons				USA Rochester	LLE
Electra				Krypton fluoride laser, 5 Hz operation with 90,000+ shots continuous				USA Washington D.C.	NRL	[[File:Electra Laser System NRL 2013.png	frameless	154x154px]]
LULI2000		?	2003-	1.06	u=μm}}, λ=, λ=				FRA Palaiseau	École polytechnique
OMEGA EP			2008-	60-beam UV				USA Rochester	LLE
NIFNational Ignition Facility (NIF)		1997-2009	2010-	192-beam Nd:glass laser, achieved scientific breakeven with fusion gain of 1.5 and neutrons				USA Livermore	LLNL	[[File:NIF target chamber construction.jpg	frameless	154x154px]]
Orion		2006-2010	2010-	351	u=nm}}				UK RAF Aldermaston	AWE	[[File:Orion target chamber.jpg	frameless	154x154px]]
Laser Mégajoule (LMJ)		1999-2014	2014-	Second-largest laser fusion facility, 10 out of 22 beam lines operational in 2022				FRA Bordeaux	CEA	https://www.asso-alp.fr/wp-content/uploads/2020/09/LMJ_3.jpg
Laser for Fast Ignition Experiments (LFEX)		2003-2015	2015-	1053	u=nm}}				JP Osaka	Institute for Laser Engineering
HiPER (High Power Laser Energy Research Facility)		2007-2015	-	Pan-European project to demonstrate the technical and economic viability of laser fusion for the production of energy	4	u=PW}}"	()	270	u=kJ}}"	()	25	u=MJ}}"	()	EU		[[File:High Power Laser Energy Research Facility drawing.jpg	frameless	154x154px]]
Laser Inertial Fusion Energy (LIFE)		2008-2013	-	Effort to develop a fusion power plant succeeding NIF		2.2	u=MJ}}"	()	40	u=MJ}}"	()	USA Livermore	LLNL	[[File:LIFE_fusion_chamber.jpg	frameless	154x154px]]
ISKRA-6		?	?	128 beam Nd:glass laser	?	?		RUS Sarov	RFNC-VNIIEF

Z-pinch

Main article: Z-pinch

Z Pulsed Power Facility
ZEBRA device at the University of Nevada's Nevada Terawatt Facility
Saturn accelerator at Sandia National Laboratory
MAGPIE at Imperial College London
COBRA at Cornell University
PULSOTRON
Z-FFR (Z(-pinch)-Fission-Fusion Reactor), a nuclear fusion–fission hybrid machine to be built in Chengdu, China by 2025 and generate power as early as 2028

Inertial electrostatic confinement

Main article: Inertial electrostatic confinement

Fusor
- List of fusor examples
Polywell

Magnetized target fusion

Main article: Magnetized target fusion

FRX-L
FRCHX
General Fusion – under development
LINUS project

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