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List of Category 4 Atlantic hurricanes
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A Category 4 Atlantic hurricane is a tropical cyclone that reaches Category 4 intensity on the Saffir–Simpson scale. Category 4 hurricanes that later attained Category 5 strength are not included in this list. The Atlantic basin includes the open waters of the Atlantic Ocean, the Caribbean Sea and the Gulf of Mexico. Category 4 is the second-highest hurricane classification category on the Saffir–Simpson Hurricane Scale, and storms that are of this intensity maintain maximum sustained winds of 113–136 knots (130–156 mph, 209–251 km/h). Based on the Atlantic hurricane database, 143 hurricanes have attained Category 4 hurricane status since 1851, the start of modern meteorological record keeping.
Statistics
Wind, damage, and storm surge statistics
Category 4 hurricanes have maximum sustained winds of 113–136 knots (130–156 mph, 209–251 km/h). "Sustained winds" refers to the average wind speed observed over one minute at a height of 10 meters (33 ft) above ground. Gusts can be up to 30% higher than the sustained winds. Mobile homes and other buildings without fixed structures can be completely destroyed, and the lower floors of sturdier structures usually sustain major damage. In addition to the winds, the cyclones generally produce a storm surge of 13–18 feet (4–5.5 m) above normal, potentially causing major beach erosion. Heavy, irreparable damage and/or near complete destruction of gas station canopies and other wide span overhang type structures are also very common, and mobile and manufactured homes are often completely destroyed. Low-level terrain may be flooded well inland, as well. In addition, Category 4 hurricanes are often Cape Verde-type hurricanes. Cape Verde hurricanes are usually the strongest, and their track sometimes points them towards the United States, or other land.
History of Category 4 Atlantic hurricanes
The number of Category 4 and 5 hurricanes appears to have nearly doubled in occurrence from 1970 to 2004.{{cite web|author=NSF|title=severe Hurricanes doubled in the past 35 years|year=2005|publisher=NSF|access-date=2013-09-03
Due to growing population in major coastal cities, many areas have become more vulnerable to strong hurricanes, especially categories 4 and 5.
Meteorological measurements
All of the storms listed in this analysis are listed in chronological order, but they also list the minimum central pressure and maximum sustained winds. Each of these meteorological readings are taken using a specific meteorological instrument. For modern storms, the minimum pressure measurements are taken by reconnaissance aircraft using dropsondes, or by determining it from satellite imagery using the Dvorak technique. For older storms, pressures are often incomplete, typically being provided by ship-reports or land-observations. None of these methods can provide constant pressure measurements; thus it is possible the only measurement occurred when the cyclone was at a lesser strength. Sustained winds are taken using an Anemometer at 10 meters (33 ft) above the ground.
Climatology
A total of 94 hurricanes in the Atlantic Ocean Basin, including the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean, have reached Category 4 status as their peak intensity. (Note that Category 4 storms that intensified later to Category 5 status are not included in this analysis.)
Most Category 4 hurricanes occur during September, with 51 storms occurring in that month. This coincides with the average peak of the Atlantic hurricane season, which occurs on September 10. Most Category 4 hurricanes develop in the warm waters of the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean Sea. Several Category 4 hurricanes are Cape Verde-type hurricanes. There have been no Category 4 hurricanes to form in either May or December, or in any other month outside the traditional bounds of the Atlantic hurricane season.
Systems
1851–1949
In the years between 1851 and 1900, thirteen Category 4 storms are known to have occurred in the Atlantic Ocean. These numbers are limited by the observation techniques used prior to the use of satellite imagery in the 1960s. --
|- | Unnamed || || 130 kn || 924 hPa || None || || || |- | Unnamed || || 130 kn || 934 hPa || United States Gulf Coast || || || |- | Unnamed || || 120 kn || 938 hPa || The Caribbean || || || |- | Unnamed || || 120 kn || 938 hPa || The Caribbean || || || |- | Unnamed || || 130 kn || 931 hPa || The Caribbean, Mexico, Texas || || || |- | Unnamed || || 120 kn || 928 hPa || None || || || |- | Unnamed || || 120 kn || 975 hPa || The Caribbean, Southeastern United States || || || |- | Unnamed || || 130 kn || 925 hPa || || || || |- | Unnamed || || 115 kn || 948 hPa || || || || |- | Unnamed || || 115 kn || 931 hPa || || || || |- | Unnamed || || 115 kn || 938 hPa || Eastern United States, Atlantic Canada || || || |- | Unnamed || || 130 kn || 930 hPa || The Caribbean, Eastern United States, Atlantic Canada || || || |- | Unnamed || || 125 kn || 936 hPa || The Caribbean, Eastern United States, Atlantic Canada || || || |- | Unnamed || || 115 kn || 950 hPa || Lesser Antiles, Greater Antiles || || || |- | Unnamed || || 130 kn || 924 hPa || || || || |- | Unnamed || || 125 kn || 940 hPa || || || || |- | Unnamed || || 125 kn || 931 hPa || || || || |- | Unnamed || || 115 kn || 932 hPa || || || || |- | Unnamed || || 130 kn || 928 hPa || || || || |- | Unnamed || || 130 kn || 927 hPa || || || || |- | Unnamed || || 120 kn || 941 hPa || || || || |- | Unnamed || || 120 kn || 967 hPa || || || || |- | Unnamed || || 120 kn || 957 hPa || || || || |- | Unnamed || || 130 kn || 930 hPa || || || || |- | Unnamed || || 130 kn || 934 hPa || || || || |- | Unnamed || || 135 kn || 924 hPa || The Bahamas, Eastern United States, Atlantic Canada || || || |- | Unnamed || || 135 kn || 933 hPa || The Caribbean, Southeastern United States || || || |- | Unnamed || September 1931 || 115 kn || 952 hPa |- | Unnamed || August 1932|| 130 kn || 935 hPa |- | Unnamed || September 1932 || 125 kn || 943 hPa |- | Unnamed || August 1933 || 120 kn || 940 hPa |- | Unnamed || August, September 1933 || 120 kn || 945 hPa |- | Unnamed || September 1933 || 120 kn || 947 hPa |- | Unnamed || August 1935 || 115 kn || 955 hPa |- | Unnamed || September, October 1935 || 120 kn || 945 hPa |- | Unnamed || October 1939 || 120 kn || 941 hPa |- | Unnamed || September 1941 || 115 kn || 957 hPa |- | Unnamed || August 1943 || 120 kn || – |- | Unnamed || October 1944 || 125 kn || 937 hPa |- | Unnamed || September 1945 || 115 kn || 949 hPa |- | Unnamed || September 1947 || 125 kn || 938 hPa |- | Unnamed || September 1948 || 115 kn || 940 hPa |- | Unnamed || September 1948 || 115 kn || 940 hPa |- | Unnamed || August 1949 || 115 kn || 954 hPa |- |}
1950–1974
In the years between 1950 and 1974, there were 26 Category 4 hurricanes in the Atlantic Ocean. A dagger () denotes that the storm temporarily weakened below Category 4 intensity during the specified period of time.
| Storm | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| name | Track | Season | Dates as a | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Category 4 | Maximum | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| sustained winds | Minimum pressure | Notes | Dog | Fox | King | Charlie | Easy | Fox | Hazel | Connie | Ione | Carrie | Cleo | Daisy | Helene | Gracie | Donna | Betsy | Carla | Frances | Flora | Cleo | Dora | Gladys | Hilda | Betsy | Celia | Carmen | Sources: Atlantic Hurricane Best Track File 1851–2012 | ||||||
| [[File:Dog 1950 track.png | 100px | center]] | 1950 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| [[File:Fox 1950 track.png | 100px | center]] | 1950 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| [[File:King 1950 track.png | 100px | center]] | 1950 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| [[File:Charlie 1951 track.png | 100px | center]] | 1951 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| [[File:Easy 1951 track.png | 100px | center]] | 1951 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| [[File:Fox 1952 track.png | 100px | center]] | 1952 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| [[File:Hazel 1954 track.png | 100px | center]] | 1954 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| [[File:Connie 1955 track.png | 100px | center]] | 1955 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| [[File:Ione 1955 track.png | 100px | center]] | 1955 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| [[File:Carrie 1957 track.png | 100px | center]] | 1957 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| [[File:Cleo 1958 track.png | 100px | center]] | 1958 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| [[File:Daisy 1958 track.png | 100px | center]] | 1958 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| [[File:Helene 1958 track.png | 100px | center]] | 1958 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| [[File:Gracie 1959 track.png | 100px | center]] | 1959 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| [[File:Donna 1960 track.png | 100px | center]] | 1960 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| [[File:Betsy 1961 track.png | 100px | center]] | 1961 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| [[File:Carla 1961 track.png | 100px | center]] | 1961 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| [[File:Frances 1961 track.png | 100px | center]] | 1961 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| [[File:Flora 1963 track.png | 100px | center]] | 1963 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| [[File:Cleo 1964 track.png | 100px | center]] | 1964 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| [[File:Dora 1964 track.png | 100px | center]] | 1964 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| [[File:Gladys 1964 track.png | 100px | center]] | 1964 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| [[File:Hilda 1964 track.png | 100px | center]] | 1964 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| [[File:Betsy 1965 track.png | 100px | center]] | 1965 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| [[File:Celia 1970 track.png | 100px | center]] | 1970 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| [[File:Carmen 1974 track.png | 100px | center]] | 1974 |
1975–1999
In the years between 1976 and 1999, 23 Category 4 hurricanes formed in the basin:
| Storm | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| name | Track | Season | Dates as a | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Category 4 | Maximum | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| sustained winds | Minimum pressure | Notes | Gladys | Ella | Greta | Frederic | Harvey | Debby | Diana | Gloria | Helene | Joan | Gabrielle | Claudette | Felix | Luis | Opal | Edouard | Hortense | Georges | Bret | Cindy | Floyd | Gert | Lenny | ||||||
| [[File:Gladys 1975 track.png | 100px | center]] | 1975 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| [[File:Ella 1978 track.png | 100px | center]] | 1978 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| [[File:Greta-Olivia 1978 track.png | 100px | center]] | 1978 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| [[File:Frederic 1979 track.png | 100px | center]] | 1979 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| [[File:Harvey 1981 track.png | 100px | center]] | 1981 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| [[File:Debby 1982 track.png | 100px | center]] | 1982 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| [[File:Diana 1984 track.png | 100px | center]] | 1984 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| [[File:Gloria 1985 track.png | 100px | center]] | 1985 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| [[File:Helene 1988 track.png | 100px | center]] | 1988 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| [[File:Joan 1988 track.png | 100px | center]] | 1988 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| [[File:Gabrielle 1989 track.png | 100px | center]] | 1989 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| [[File:Claudette 1991 track.png | 100px | center]] | 1991 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| [[File:Felix 1995 track.png | 100px | center]] | 1995 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| [[File:Luis 1995 track.png | 100px | center]] | 1995 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| [[File:Opal 1995 path.png | 100px | center]] | 1995 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| [[File:Edouard 1996 track.png | 100px | center]] | 1996 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| [[File:Hortense 1996 track.png | 100px | center]] | 1996 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| [[File:Georges 1998 track.png | 100px | center]] | 1998 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| [[File:Bret 1999 track.png | 100px | center]] | 1999 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| [[File:Cindy 1999 track.png | 100px | center]] | 1999 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| [[File:Floyd 1999 path.png | 100px | center]] | 1999 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| [[File:Gert 1999 track.png | 100px | center]] | 1999 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| [[File:Lenny 1999 track.png | 100px | center]] | 1999 |
2000–2025
In the years between 2000 and 2025, 40 Category 4 hurricanes formed within the confines of the Atlantic Ocean. A dagger () denotes that the storm temporarily weakened below Category 4 intensity during the specified period of time.
| Storm | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| name | Track | Season | Dates as a | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Category 4 | Maximum | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| sustained winds | Minimum pressure | Notes | Isaac | Keith | Iris | Michelle | Lili | Fabian | Charley | Frances | Karl | Dennis | Gustav | Ike | Omar | Paloma | Bill | Danielle | Earl | Igor | Julia | Katia | Ophelia | Gonzalo | Joaquin | Nicole | Harvey | Jose | scope row | Florence | scope row | Laura | scope row | Teddy | scope row | Delta | scope row | Eta | scope row | Iota | scope row | Ida | scope row | Sam | scope row | Fiona | scope row | Franklin | scope row | Idalia | scope row | Helene | Kirk | Gabrielle |
| [[File:Isaac 2000 track.png | 100px | center]] | 2000 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| [[File:Keith 2000 path.png | 100px | center]] | 2000 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| [[File:Iris 2001 path.png | 100px | center]] | 2001 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| [[File:Michelle 2001 path.png | 100px | center]] | 2001 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| [[File:Lili 2002 path.png | 100px | center]] | 2002 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| [[File:Fabian 2003 path.png | 100px | center]] | 2003 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| [[File:Charley 2004 path.png | 100px | center]] | 2004 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| [[File:Frances 2004 path.png | 100px | center]] | 2004 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| [[File:Karl 2004 track.png | 100px | center]] | 2004 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| [[File:Dennis 2005 path.png | 100px | center]] | 2005 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| [[File:Gustav 2008 path.png | 100px | center]] | 2008 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| [[File:Ike 2008 path.png | 100px | center]] | 2008 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| [[File:Omar 2008 track.png | 100px | center]] | 2008 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| [[File:Paloma 2008 path.png | 100px | center]] | 2008 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| [[File:Bill 2009 track.png | 100px | center]] | 2009 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| [[File:Danielle 2010 track.png | 100px | center]] | 2010 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| [[File:Earl 2010 track.png | 100px | center]] | 2010 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| [[File:Igor 2010 path.png | 100px | center]] | 2010 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| [[File:Julia 2010 track.png | 100px | center]] | 2010 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| [[File:Katia 2011 path.png | 100px | center]] | 2011 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| [[File:Ophelia 2011 track.png | 100px | center]] | 2011 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| [[File:Gonzalo 2014 path.png | 100px | center]] | 2014 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| [[File:Joaquin 2015 path.png | 100px | center]] | 2015 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| [[File:Nicole 2016 path.png | 100px | center]] | 2016 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| [[File:Harvey 2017 path.png | 100px | center]] | 2017 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| [[File:Jose 2017 path.png | 100px | center]] | 2017 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| [[File: Florence 2018 path.png | 100px | center]] | 2018 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| [[File:Laura 2020 path.png | 100px | center]] | 2020 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| [[File:Teddy 2020 path.png | 100px | center]] | 2020 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| [[File:Delta 2020 path.png | 100px | center]] | 2020 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| [[File:Eta 2020 path.png | 100px | center]] | 2020 | ) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| [[File:Iota 2020 path.png | 100px | center]] | 2020 | ) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| [[File:Ida 2021 path.png | 100px | center]] | 2021 | ) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| [[File:Sam 2021 path.png | 100px | center]] | 2021 | ) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| [[File:Fiona 2022 path.png | 100px | center]] | 2022 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| [[File:Franklin 2023 path.png | 100px | center]] | 2023 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| [[File:Idalia 2023 path.png | 100px | center]] | 2023 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| [[File:Helene 2024 path.png | 100px | center]] | 2024 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| [[File:Kirk 2024 path.png | 100px | center]] | 2024 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| [[File:Gabrielle 2025 path.png | 100px | center]] | 2025 |
Number by month
Landfalls
The following hurricanes from the above lists made landfall at some location while a tropical cyclone with winds of greater than 34 kn. Due to inaccuracies in data, tropical depression landfalls are not included. Category 5 hurricanes are also not included in the table below. Several of these storms weakened slightly after attaining Category 4 status as they approached land; this is usually a result of dry air, shallower water due to shelving, cooler waters, or interaction with land.
| Name | Year | ||
|---|---|---|---|
| cat4}} | cat3}} | ||
| "Last Island" | 1856 | ||
| "Unnamed" | 1866 | ||
| "Unnamed" | 1878 | ||
| "Unnamed" | 1880 | ||
| "Unnamed" | 1882 | ||
| Indianola | 1886 | ||
| Cheniere Caminada | 1893 | ||
| Unnamed | 1894 | ||
| Georgia | 1898 | ||
| San Ciriaco | 1899 | ||
| Galveston (1900) | 1900 | ||
| Unnamed | 1910 | ||
| Galveston (1915) | 1915 | ||
| New Orleans | 1915 | ||
| Florida Keys | 1919 | ||
| Tampa Bay | 1921 | ||
| Nassau | 1926 | ||
| Miami | 1926 | ||
| Unnamed | 1926 | ||
| Unnamed | 1929 | ||
| San Zenón | 1930 | ||
| Unnamed | 1932 | ||
| San Ciprián | 1932 | ||
| Chesapeake–Potomac | 1933 | ||
| Treasure Coast | 1933 | ||
| Outer Banks | 1933 | ||
| Unnamed | 1945 | ||
| Unnamed | 1948 | ||
| Unnamed | 1949 | ||
| Charlie | 1951 | ||
| King | 1950 | ||
| Fox | 1952 | ||
| Hazel | 1954 | ||
| Connie | 1955 | ||
| Carrie | 1957 | ||
| Helene | 1958 | ||
| Gracie | 1959 | ||
| Donna | 1960 | ||
| Carla | 1961 | ||
| Flora | 1963 | ||
| Cleo | 1964 | ||
| Dora | 1964 | ||
| Hilda | 1964 | ||
| Betsy | 1965 | ||
| Celia | 1970 | ||
| Carmen | 1974 | ||
| Greta | 1978 | ||
| Frederic | 1979 | ||
| Diana | 1984 | ||
| Gloria | 1985 | ||
| Joan | 1988 | ||
| Luis | 1995 | ||
| Opal | 1995 | ||
| Hortense | 1996 | ||
| Georges | 1998 | ||
| Bret | 1999 | ||
| Floyd | 1999 | ||
| Lenny | 1999 | ||
| Keith | 2000 | ||
| Iris | 2001 | ||
| Michelle | 2001 | ||
| Lili | 2002 | ||
| Charley | 2004 | ||
| Frances | 2004 | ||
| Dennis | 2005 | ||
| Gustav | 2008 | ||
| Ike | 2008 | ||
| Paloma | 2008 | ||
| Bill | 2009 | ||
| Earl | 2010 | ||
| Igor | 2010 | ||
| Gonzalo | 2014 | ||
| Joaquin | 2015 | ||
| Harvey | 2017 | ||
| Florence | 2018 | ||
| Laura | 2020 | ||
| Delta | 2020 | ||
| Eta | 2020 | ||
| Iota | 2020 | ||
| Ida | 2021 | ||
| Fiona | 2022 | ||
| Franklin | 2023 | ||
| Idalia | 2023 | ||
| Helene | 2024 |
References
References
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- Landsea, Chris. (2006). "FAQ subject D4". HURDAT.
- National Hurricane Center. (June 22, 2006). "Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Scale Information". [[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration]].
- Landsea, Chris. (2006). "FAQ subject A2". HURDAT.
- Vecchi, Gabriel. "Historical Changes in Atlantic Hurricane and Tropical Storms". gfdl.noaa.
- (2011). "Is the recorded increase in short-duration North Atlantic tropical storms spurious?". Journal of Geophysical Research.
- (2011). "Estimating Annual Numbers of Atlantic Hurricanes Missing from the HURDAT Database (1878–1965) Using Ship Track Density". Journal of Climate.
- Landsea, Christopher. (2010). "Impact of Duration Thresholds on Atlantic Tropical Cyclone Counts". Journal of Climate.
- (2008). "On Estimates of Historical North Atlantic Tropical Cyclone Activity". Journal of Climate.
- [http://www.weather.com/newscenter/specialreports/hurricanes/vulnerablecities/index.html weather.com - Vulnerable Cities: Index] {{webarchive. link. (2007-12-22)
- Hock, Terry. (2007). "GPS dropsondes". NCAR.
- Federal Emergency Management Agency. (2004). "Hurricane Glossary of Terms".
- National Hurricane Center. (2007-03-08). "Tropical Cyclone Climatology". [[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration]].
- ["1853 Major Hurricane Not Named (1853242N12336)"]({{IBTRACS url). International Best Track Archive for Climate Stewardship.
- ["1856 Major Hurricane Not Named (1856221N25277)"]({{IBTRACS url). International Best Track Archive for Climate Stewardship.
- ["1866 Major Hurricane Not Named (1866264N11342)"]({{IBTRACS url). International Best Track Archive for Climate Stewardship.
- ["1878 Major Hurricane Not Named (1878267N15288)"]({{IBTRACS url). International Best Track Archive for Climate Stewardship.
- ["1880 Major Hurricane Not Named (1880217N16300)"]({{IBTRACS url). International Best Track Archive for Climate Stewardship.
- ["1880 Major Hurricane Not Named (1880271N23317)"]({{IBTRACS url). International Best Track Archive for Climate Stewardship.
- ["1882 Major Hurricane Not Named (1882278N11279)"]({{IBTRACS url). International Best Track Archive for Climate Stewardship.
- ["1886 Major Hurricane Not Named (1886224N11303)"]({{IBTRACS url). International Best Track Archive for Climate Stewardship.
- ["1893 Major Hurricane Not Named (1893271N16278)"]({{IBTRACS url). International Best Track Archive for Climate Stewardship.
- ["1894 Major Hurricane Not Named (1894284N11303)"]({{IBTRACS url). International Best Track Archive for Climate Stewardship.
- ["1898 Major Hurricane Not Named (1898268N16302)"]({{IBTRACS url). International Best Track Archive for Climate Stewardship.
- ["1899 Major Hurricane Not Named (1899215N12329)"]({{IBTRACS url). International Best Track Archive for Climate Stewardship.
- ["1900 Major Hurricane Not Named (1900239N15318)"]({{IBTRACS url). International Best Track Archive for Climate Stewardship.
- ["1906 Major Hurricane Not Named (1906238N14339)"]({{IBTRACS url). International Best Track Archive for Climate Stewardship.
- ["1910 Major Hurricane Not Named (1910282N11281)"]({{IBTRACS url). International Best Track Archive for Climate Stewardship.
- ["1915 Major Hurricane Not Named (1915218N14334)"]({{IBTRACS url). International Best Track Archive for Climate Stewardship.
- ["1915 Major Hurricane Not Named (1915218N14334)"]({{IBTRACS url). International Best Track Archive for Climate Stewardship.
- ["1916 Major Hurricane Not Named (1916225N13305)"]({{IBTRACS url). International Best Track Archive for Climate Stewardship.
- ["1917 Major Hurricane Not Named (1917263N13303)"]({{IBTRACS url). International Best Track Archive for Climate Stewardship.
- ["1919 Major Hurricane Not Named (1919246N16299)"]({{IBTRACS url). International Best Track Archive for Climate Stewardship.
- ["1921 Major Hurricane Not Named (1921293N13280)"]({{IBTRACS url). International Best Track Archive for Climate Stewardship.
- ["1929 Major Hurricane Not Named (1929262N23296)"]({{IBTRACS url). International Best Track Archive for Climate Stewardship.
- ["1930 Major Hurricane Not Named (1930241N13317)"]({{IBTRACS url). International Best Track Archive for Climate Stewardship.
- (April 19, 2022). "Atlantic hurricane best track (HURDAT version 2)". United States National Hurricane Center.
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