Kung fu (term)

History

Though widely known as a Chinese martial art, several historical interpretations suggest that the origins of Kung Fu may have deep connections with ancient Indian martial traditions, particularly Kalaripayattu, one of the world’s oldest fighting systems.

The central figure in this theory is Bodhidharma, an Indian monk believed to have traveled from the Pallava dynasty in South India to China around the 5th or 6th century CE. Historical Chinese accounts, such as the Luoyang Jialan Ji, refer to a monk named Damo (the Chinese name for Bodhidharma) who arrived at the Shaolin Monastery. While his primary role was to spread Chan (Zen) Buddhism, he is also said to have introduced physical training exercises, now believed to be precursors of Shaolin martial arts.

Bodhidharma’s training methods reportedly included dynamic movements, breath control, and meditative postures designed to strengthen the body and mind of monks who struggled with long hours of meditation. These methods closely resemble Indian yogic and martial practices, especially the blend of combat and spiritual discipline found in Kalaripayattu. Some versions of the legend claim that Bodhidharma taught the monks the Eighteen Hands of Lohan, which evolved into the basis of Shaolin Kung Fu.

The conceptual foundations of Kung Fu, such as internal energy (Qi), spiritual harmony, and discipline through movement, have similarities to Indian yoga, Ayurveda, and martial scripture like the Dhanurveda. However, the concept of internal energy, or qi (氣), is rooted in indigenous Chinese thought and appears prominently in early traditions such as Taoism and Confucianism, developing well before the introduction of Buddhism into China. These schools treated qi as both a vital force within the human body and a fundamental substance underlying the natural world. Daoist texts emphasized cultivating and harmonizing qi through breathing exercises, meditation, and internal alchemy, while Confucian thinkers described it as a moral and spiritual energy nourished by righteous living. Therefore, while parallels exist between Chinese and Indian traditions in their emphasis on breath, vitality, and disciplined practice, the Chinese notion of qi (氣) developed independently within its own philosophical and cultural framework.

Although modern scholars remain divided over the historical accuracy of Bodhidharma's role, a growing number of historians, cultural researchers, and martial arts schools worldwide now acknowledge the possibility of Indian influence in the early development of Kung Fu. This theory is especially supported in South Indian oral traditions, martial arts communities, and Buddhist historical narratives linking India and China, and has been explored by scholars such as Meir Shahar, Thomas A. Green, and Dr. Trilochan Beura.

While the evolution of Kung Fu in China is undeniably vast and independent in its own right, its early roots may reflect a profound cross-cultural exchange, with India potentially planting the seed that later grew into the towering legacy of Chinese martial arts.

Although Bodhidharma is traditionally credited in popular culture with introducing martial arts to the Shaolin Monastery, there is no historical evidence for such a connection. The earliest biography of Bodhidharma, compiled by Daoxuan in the Xu Gaoseng Zhuan (645 CE), portrays him solely as a meditation master and does not mention physical training or martial practices. The association between Bodhidharma and martial arts appears only in the 17th century with the circulation of the Yijin Jing (Muscle/Tendon Changing Classic), a text later demonstrated by historian Tang Hao to be a Ming-dynasty fabrication. Modern scholars such as John McRae and Yanagida Seizan emphasize that Bodhidharma’s biography is primarily legendary, constructed to legitimize Chan lineages rather than to describe a historical figure. Research by Stanley Henning and Meir Shahar further confirms that Shaolin martial practices developed independently during the Ming dynasty, and that the claim of Bodhidharma as their founder is a retrospective myth with no basis in early Buddhist or Shaolin sources.

Other historians such as Xu Zhen and Matsuda Ryuchi also dispute the authorship of the Yijin Jing. According to Matsuda, historical texts written about the Shaolin martial arts before the 19th century, such as Cheng Zongyou's Exposition of the Original Shaolin Staff Method or Zhang Kongzhao's Boxing Classic: Essential Boxing Methods, do not mention Bodhidharma or credit him with the creation of the Shaolin martial arts. The popular myth that Bodhidharma introduced martial arts to the Shaolin temple instead originates from the 1904–1907 serialization of the novel The Travels of Lao Ts'an in Illustrated Fiction Magazine.

In popular culture

References to the concepts and use of Chinese martial arts can be found in popular culture. Historically, the influence of Chinese martial arts can be found in books and in the performance arts specific to Asia. Recently, those influences have extended to the movies and television that targets a much wider audience. As a result, Chinese martial arts have spread beyond their national roots and have a global appeal.

Martial arts play a prominent role in the literature genre known as wuxia. This type of fiction is based on Chinese concepts of chivalry, a separate martial arts society (武林; Wulin) and a central theme involving martial arts. Wuxia stories can be traced as far back as the 2nd and 3rd centuries BCE, becoming popular by the Tang dynasty and evolving into novel form by the Ming dynasty. This genre is still extremely popular in much of Asia and provides a major influence for the public perception of the martial arts.

Martial arts influences can also be found in dance, theater and especially Chinese opera, of which Beijing opera is one of the best-known examples. This popular form of drama dates back to the Tang dynasty and continues to be an example of Chinese culture. Some martial arts movements can be found in Chinese opera and some martial artists can be found as performers in Chinese operas.

In modern times, Chinese martial arts have spawned the genre of cinema known as the kung fu film. The films of Bruce Lee were instrumental in the initial burst of Chinese martial arts' popularity in the West in the 1970s, following a famous demonstration of "Chinese Boxing" to the US karate community the Long Beach International Karate Championships in 1964. Martial artists and actors such as Jackie Chan, Jet Li and Donnie Yen have continued the appeal of movies of this genre. Jackie Chan successfully brought in a sense of humor in his fighting style into his movies. Martial arts films from China are often referred to as "kung fu movies" (功夫片), or "wire-fu" if extensive wire work is performed for special effects and are still best known as part of the tradition of kung fu theater. (see also: wuxia, Hong Kong action cinema).

Influence on early hip-hop

In the 1970s, Bruce Lee was beginning to gain popularity in Hollywood for his martial arts movies. The fact that he was a non-white male who portrayed self-reliance and righteous self-discipline resonated with black audiences and made him an important figure in this community. With the release of Enter the Dragon in 1973, kung fu movies became a hit in America across all backgrounds; however, black audiences maintained the films' popularity well after the general public lost interest. Urban youth from every borough in New York City were attending movies in Manhattan's Times Square every night to watch the latest films.

Among these individuals were those coming from the Bronx where, during this time, hip hop was beginning to take form. One of the pioneers responsible for the development of the foundational aspects of hip-hop was DJ Kool Herc, who began creating this new form of music by taking rhythmic breakdowns of songs and looping them. From the new music came a new form of dance known as b-boying or breakdancing, a style of street dance consisting of improvised acrobatic moves. The pioneers of this dance credit kung fu as one of its influences.

Moves such as the crouching low leg sweep and "up rocking" (standing combat moves) are influenced by choreographed kung fu fights. The dancers' ability to improvise these moves led way to battles, which were dance competitions between two dancers or crews judged on their creativity, skills and musicality. In a documentary, Crazy Legs, a member of breakdancing group Rock Steady Crew, described the breakdancing battle being like an old kung fu movie, "where the one kung fu master says something along the lines of 'hun your kung fu is good, but mine is better,' then a fight erupts."

References

References

1. (10 March 2010). "Dictionary". Dictionary.com.
2. (2012). "Chinese Martial Arts From Antiquity to the Twenty-First Century". Cambridge University Press.
3. (26 February 2011). ["Dictionary"](http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/kung%2Bfu?region=us&q=kung+fu}}{{dead link). Oxford Dictionaries Online.
4. Shahar, Meir (2008). ''The Shaolin Monastery: History, Religion, and the Chinese Martial Arts''. Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press. ISBN 9780824823843.
5. Birchall, Diana (1993). ''Bodhidharma: The Greatest Zen Master''. Element Books Ltd. ISBN 9781852304464.
6. “Kalaripayattu”. UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage. Retrieved 2025-05-15.
7. Shahar, Meir (2008). ''The Shaolin Monastery: History, Religion, and the Chinese Martial Arts''. University of Hawai‘i Press. ISBN 9780824823843.
8. Green, Thomas A., and Svinth, Joseph R. (2010). ''Martial Arts of the World: An Encyclopedia of History and Innovation''. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 9781598842432.
9. [https://www.britannica.com/biography/Bodhidharma “Bodhidharma.” ''Encyclopedia Britannica''. Retrieved 15 May 2025 from]
10. Daoxuan. (645). "Xu Gaoseng Zhuan [續高僧傳]".
11. Tang, Hao. (1936). "Shaolin Wushu Kaoyuan [少林武術考源]".
12. "Seeing through Zen by John Mcrae - Paper".
13. Shahar, Meir. (2020-06-24). "The Shaolin Monastery: History, Religion, and the Chinese Martial Arts".
14. Henning, Stanley E.. (1999). "Academia Encounters the Chinese Martial Arts". China Review International.
15. Matsuda Ryuchi 松田隆智. (1986). "Zhōngguó wǔshù shǐlüè 中國武術史略". Danqing tushu.
16. Henning, Stanley. (1994). "Ignorance, Legend and Taijiquan". Journal of the Chenstyle Taijiquan Research Association of Hawaii.
17. Ryan, Alexandra. (2008-12-01). "Globalisation and the 'Internal Alchemy' In Chinese Martial Arts: The Transmission of Taijiquan to Britain". East Asian Science, Technology and Society.
18. Christensen, Joyleen. (2021-09-26). "From Bruce Lee to Shang-Chi: a short history of the kung fu film in cinema".
19. Haihsing, Yao. (2001-03-01). "MARTIAL-ACROBATIC ARTS IN PEKING OPERA. {{!}} EBSCOhost".
20. Hoad, Phil. (18 July 2012). "Why Bruce Lee and kung fu films hit home with black audiences". [[The Guardian]].
21. Wisdom B. (5 June 2017). "Know Your Hip-Hop History: The B-Boy". Throwback Magazine.
22. Friedman, Chris. (9 October 2017). "Kung Fu Influences Aspects of Hip Hop Culture Like Break Dancing".