Kafir

Etymology

The word ar is the active participle of the verb , from root ك-ف-ر K-F-R. As a pre-Islamic term it described farmers burying seeds in the ground. One of its applications in the Quran has also the same meaning as farmer. Since farmers cover the seeds with soil while planting, the word ar implies a person who hides or covers. Ideologically, it implies a person who hides or covers the truth. Arabic poets personify the darkness of night as ar, perhaps as a survival of pre-Islamic Arabian religious or mythological usage.

The noun for 'disbelief', 'blasphemy', 'impiety' rather than the person who disbelieves, is ar.

In the Quran

The distinction between those who believe in Islam and those who do not is made in the Quran. ar, and its plural ar, is used directly 134 times in Quran, its verbal noun ar is used 37 times, and the verbal cognates of ar are used about 250 times.

By extension of the basic meaning of the root, 'to cover', the term is used in the Quran in the senses of ignore/fail to acknowledge and to spurn/be ungrateful. The meaning of 'disbelief', which has come to be regarded as primary, retains all of these connotations in the Quranic usage. In the Quranic discourse, the term typifies all things that are unacceptable and offensive to God. Within the Quranic context, the term implies an active offense and often bears the connotation of "ungratefulness". In Surah 26:19, the Pharaoh accuses Moses of being a kafir for being ungrateful to what he has done to him when Moses was a child. Likewise, Iblis (Satan) does not deny the existence of God, but is called a ar for rejecting God. According to Al-Damiri (1341–1405) it is neither denying God, nor the act of disobedience alone, but Iblis' attitude (claiming that God's command is unjust), which makes him a ar. The most fundamental sense of ar in the Quran is 'ingratitude', the willful refusal to acknowledge or appreciate the benefits that God bestows on humankind, including clear signs and revealed scriptures.

According to E. J. Brill's First Encyclopaedia of Islam, 1913–1936, Volume 4, the term first applied in the Quran to unbelieving Meccans, who endeavoured "to refute and revile the Prophet". A waiting attitude towards the ar was recommended at first for Muslims; later, Muslims were ordered to keep apart from unbelievers and defend themselves against their attacks and even take the offensive. Most passages in the Quran referring to unbelievers in general talk about their fate on the day of judgement and destination in hell.

According to scholar Marilyn Waldman, as the Quran "progresses" (as the reader goes from the verses revealed first to later ones), the meaning behind the term ar does not change but "progresses", i.e. "accumulates meaning over time". As the Islamic prophet Muhammad's views of his opponents change, his use of ar "undergoes a development". ar moves from being one description of Muhammad's opponents to the primary one. Later in the Quran, ar becomes more and more connected with ar. Finally, towards the end of the Quran, ar begins to also signify the group of people to be fought by the ar ('believers').

Khaled Abou El Fadl argues that Quran 2:62 supports religious pluralism, implying that some non-Muslims are not kafirs: "Those who believe, Jews, Christians, Sabians—whoever believes in God and the Last Day and do good, will have their reward with their Lord and they will not fear, nor grieve."

Types of unbelievers

People of the Book

Charles Adams writes that the Quran reproaches the People of the Book with ar for rejecting Muhammad's message when they should have been the first to accept it as possessors of earlier revelations, and singles out Christians for disregarding the evidence of God's unity. though modern scholarship has suggested alternative interpretations.{{refn|group=note|That this verse criticizes a deviant form of Trinitarian belief which overstressed distinctiveness of the three persons at the expense of their unity. Modern scholars have also interpreted it as a reference to Jesus, who was often called "the third of three" in Syriac literature and as an intentional over-simplification of Christian doctrine intended to highlight its weakness from a strictly monotheistic perspective. While the Quran does not recognize the attribute of Jesus as the Son of God or God himself, it respects Jesus as a prophet and messenger of God sent to children of Israel. Some Muslim thinkers such as Mohamed Talbi have viewed the most extreme Quranic presentations of the dogmas of the Trinity and divinity of Jesus (, , ) as non-Christian formulas that were rejected by the Church.

On the other hand, modern scholarship has suggested alternative interpretations of verse Q.. Cyril Glasse criticizes the use of ar (plural of ar) to describe Christians as "loose usage". According to the Encyclopedia of Islam, in traditional Islamic jurisprudence, ar are "usually regarded more leniently than other ar [plural of ar]" and "in theory" a Muslim commits a punishable offense if they say to a Jew or a Christian: "Thou unbeliever". Charles Adams and A. Kevin Reinhart also write that "later thinkers" in Islam distinguished between ahl al-kitab and the polytheists/mushrikīn.

Historically, People of the Book permanently residing under Islamic rule were entitled to a special status known as ar, while those visiting Muslim lands received a different status known as ar.

The Mushrikun

The mushrikun are those who believe in shirk 'association', which refers to accepting other gods and divinities alongside God. The term is often translated as polytheist. The Quran distinguishes between mushrikun and People of the Book, reserving the former term for idol worshipers, although some classical commentators considered Christian doctrine to be a form of shirk. Shirk is held to be the worst form of disbelief and it is identified in the Quran as the only sin that God will not pardon (, ).

The concept of mushrikūn (Arabic: مشركون, lit. 'associators') refers to those who commit shirk (Arabic: شرك), or 'association,' the theological sin of accepting other gods, divinities, or partners alongside God (Allah). This term is often translated as polytheist or idolater and is a fundamental distinction in Islamic jurisprudence from the People of the Book (Ahl al-Kitāb, i.e., Jews and Christians), who follow a divinely revealed scripture. In classical and traditional Islamic scholarship, this category typically includes those who are not considered People of the Book. For instance, Hindus (despite it being monotheist yet pluralistic metamorphic), are generally viewed as mushrikūn because their worship involves polytheism and image-veneration, which are considered forms of shirk in Islam, a view historically reflected in the Mughal context. Similarly, Buddhism, particularly its iconographic forms involving the veneration of the Buddha or Bodhisattvas, has often been categorized by Muslim authors as idolatrous and grouped with the practices of the mushrikūn. Other non-Abrahamic traditions, such as Sikhism (despite its monotheism, a categorization sometimes used by hardline scholars due to its rejection of Islamic prophecy), Taoism, Confucianism, Shintoism, and various indigenous religions (due to their focus on ancestor spirits, nature worship, or multiple deities), have historically been relegated to the category of mushrikūn because they fall outside the recognized group of Ahl al-Kitāb in traditional Islamic legal schools.

Accusations of ar have been common in religious polemics within Islam. Thus, in the early Islamic debates on free will and theodicy, Sunni theologians charged their Mutazila adversaries with ar, accusing them of attributing to man creative powers comparable to those of God in both originating and executing actions. Mu'tazila theologians, in turn, charged the Sunnis with shirk because under their doctrine a voluntary human act results from an "association" between God, who creates the act, and the individual who appropriates it by carrying it out.

In classical jurisprudence, Islamic religious tolerance applied only to the People of the Book, while mushrikun, based on the Sword Verse, faced a choice between conversion to Islam and fight to the death, which may be substituted by enslavement. In practice, the designation of People of the Book and the dhimmī status was extended even to non-monotheistic religions of conquered peoples, such as Hinduism.

In the 18th century, followers of Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab, known as Wahhabis, believed kufr or shirk was found in the Muslim community itself, especially in "the practice of popular religion":

While ibn Abd al-Wahhab and the Wahhābīs were "the best-known premodern" revivalist and "sectarian movement" of that era, other revivalists included Shah Ismail Dehlvi and Ahmed Raza Khan Barelvi, leaders of the Mujāhidīn movement on the North-West frontier of India in the early 19th century.

Sinners

Whether a Muslim could commit a sin great enough to become a ar was disputed by jurists in the early centuries of Islam. The most tolerant view (that of the ar) was that even those who had committed a major sin (ar) were still believers and "their fate was left to God". The most strict view (that of Kharidji Ibadis, descended from the Kharijites) was that every Muslim who dies having not repented of their sins was considered a ar. In between these two positions, the ar believed that there was a status between believer and unbeliever called "rejected" or ar.

{{transliteration|ar|Takfir}}

Main article: Takfir

The Kharijites' view that the self-proclaimed Muslim who had sinned and "failed to repent had ipso facto excluded himself from the community, and was hence a ar" (a practice known as ar) was considered so extreme by the Sunni majority that they in turn declared the Kharijites to be ar, following the hadith that declared, "If a Muslim charges a fellow Muslim with ar, he is himself a ar if the accusation should prove untrue".

Nevertheless, in Islamic theological polemics ar was "a frequent term for the Muslim protagonist" holding the opposite view, according to Brill's Islamic Encyclopedia.

Present-day Muslims who make interpretations that differ from what others believe are declared ar; ar (edicts by Islamic religious leaders) are issued ordering Muslims to kill them, and some such people have been killed also.

{{transliteration|ar|Murtad}}

Another group that are "distinguished from the mass of ar"

{{transliteration|ar|Muʿāhid}} / {{transliteration|ar|Dhimmī}}

ar are non-Muslims living under the protection of an Islamic state. ar are exempt from certain duties assigned specifically to Muslims if they paid the poll tax (ar) but were otherwise equal under the laws of property, contract, and obligation according to some scholars, whereas others state that religious minorities subjected to the status of ar (such as Jews, Samaritans, Gnostics, Mandeans, and Zoroastrians) were inferior to the status of Muslims in Islamic states. Jews and Christians were required to pay the ar while pagans, depending on the different rulings of the four ar, might be required to accept Islam, pay the jizya, be exiled, or be killed under the Islamic death penalty. Some historians believe that forced conversion was rare in Islamic history, and most conversions to Islam were voluntary. Muslim rulers were often more interested in conquest than conversion.

Upon payment of the tax (ar), the ar would receive a receipt of payment, either in the form of a piece of paper or parchment or as a seal humiliatingly placed upon their neck, and was thereafter compelled to carry this receipt wherever they went within the realms of Islam. Failure to produce an up-to-date ar receipt on the request of a Muslim could result in death or forced conversion to Islam of the ar in question.

Types of disbelief

Various types of unbelief recognized by legal scholars include:

• ar (verbally expressed unbelief)
• ar (unbelief expressed through action)
• ar (unbelief of convictions)
• ar (major unbelief)
• ar (minor unbelief)
• ar (general charge of unbelief, i.e. charged against a community like ahmadiyya
• ar (charge of unbelief against a particular individual)
• ar (charge of unbelief against "rank and file Muslims" for example following taqlid.
• ar (category covers general statements such as 'whoever says X or does Y is guilty of unbelief')
• ar (original unbelief of non-Muslims, those born to non-Muslim family)
• ar (acquired unbelief of formerly observant Muslims, i.e. apostates)

Iman

Muslim belief/doctrine is often summarized in "the Six Articles of Faith", (the first five are mentioned together in the ).

1. God
2. His angels
3. His Messengers
4. His Revealed Books,
5. The Day of Resurrection
6. ar, Divine Preordainments, i.e. whatever God has ordained must come to pass

According to the Salafi scholar Muhammad Taqi-ud-Din al-Hilali, "ar is basically disbelief in any of the articles of faith." He also lists several different types of major disbelief, (disbelief so severe it excludes those who practice it completely from the fold of Islam):

1. ar: disbelief in divine truth or the denial of any of the articles of Faith (Quran 39:32)
2. ar: refusing to submit to God's Commandments after conviction of their truth (Quran 2:34)
3. ar: doubting or lacking conviction in the six articles of Faith. (Quran 18:35–38)
4. ar: turning away from the truth knowingly or deviating from the obvious signs which God has revealed. (Quran 46:3)
5. ar: hypocritical disbelief (Quran 63:2–3)

Minor disbelief or ar indicates "ungratefulness of God's Blessings or Favours".

According to another source, a paraphrase of the ar by Ibn Kathir, there are eight kinds of ar (major unbelief), some are the same as those described by Al-Hilali (ar, ar) and some different.

1. ar: Disbelief out of stubbornness. This applies to someone who knows the Truth and admits to knowing the Truth, and knowing it with their tongue, but refuses to accept it and refrains from making a declaration.
2. ar: Disbelief out of denial. This applies to someone who denies with both heart and tongue.
3. ar: Disbelief out of rejection. This applies to someone who acknowledges the truth in their heart, but rejects it with their tongue. This type of ar is applicable to those who call themselves Muslims but who reject any necessary and accepted norms of Islam such as ar and ar.
4. ar: Disbelief out of hypocrisy. This applies to someone who pretends to be a believer but conceals their disbelief. Such a person is called a ar or hypocrite.
5. ar: Disbelief out of detesting any of God's commands.
6. ar: Disbelief due to mockery and derision.
7. ar: Disbelief due to avoidance. This applies to those who turn away and avoid the truth.
8. ar: Disbelief because of trying to substitute God's Laws with man-made laws.

Ignorance

In Islam, ar ('ignorance') refers to the time of Arabia before Islam.

History of the usage of the term

Usage in the earliest sense

When the Islamic empire expanded, the word ar was broadly used as a descriptive term for all pagans and anyone else who disbelieved in Islam. Historically, the attitude toward unbelievers in Islam was determined more by socio-political conditions than by religious doctrine. A tolerance toward unbelievers "impossible to imagine in contemporary Christendom" prevailed even to the time of the Crusades, particularly with respect to the People of the Book. However, due to animosity towards Franks, the term ar developed into a term of abuse. During the Mahdist War, the Mahdist State used the term ar against Ottoman Turks, and the Turks themselves used the term ar towards Persians during the Ottoman-Safavid wars. In modern Muslim popular imagination, the ar (Antichrist-like figure) will have k-f-r written on his forehead.

However, there was extensive religious violence in India between Muslims and non-Muslims during the Delhi Sultanate and Mughal Empire (before the political decline of Islam). In their memoirs on Muslim invasions, enslavement and plunder of this period, many Muslim historians in South Asia used the term ar for Hindus, Buddhists, Sikhs and Jains. Raziuddin Aquil states that "non-Muslims were often condemned as ar, in medieval Indian Islamic literature, including court chronicles, Sufi texts and literary compositions" and ar were issued that justified persecution of the non-Muslims.

Relations between Jews and Muslims in the Arab world and use of the word ar were equally as complex, and over the last century, issues regarding ar have arisen over the conflict in Israel and Palestine. Calling the Jews of Israel, "the usurping ar", Yasser Arafat turned on the Muslim resistance and "allegedly set a precedent for preventing Muslims from mobilizing against 'aggressor disbelievers' in other Muslim lands, and enabled 'the cowardly, alien ar' to achieve new levels of intervention in Muslim affairs."

In 2019, Nahdlatul Ulama, the largest independent Islamic organization in the world, issued a proclamation urging Muslims to refrain from using the word ar to refer to non-Muslims, as the term is both offensive and perceived to be "theologically violent".

Muhammad's parents

According to Islamic sources, none of forefathers of Muhammad were ar. According to Ibn Hajar, the Quran clearly declares that Ahl al-Fatrah were among the Muslims. Ibn Hajar is of opinion that none of the Muhammad's parents who were non-prophets were ar (disbelievers) and all the hadiths on this subject (although some hadiths seem to contradict it) mean that. Ibn Hajar says about Muhammad saying his ar is in the Hell, that the ar in the hadith refers to the paternal uncle and that Arabs widely use ar to refer to ar (paternal uncle). Most Sunni scholars hold the view that the parents of Muhammad are saved and inhabitants of Heaven.

Shia Muslim scholars likewise consider Muhammad's parents to be in Paradise. In contrast, the Salafi website IslamQA.info, founded by the Saudi Arabian Salafi scholar Muhammad Al-Munajjid, argues that Islamic tradition teaches that Muhammad's parents were ar ('disbelievers') who are in Hell.

Other uses

By the 15th century, Muslims in Africa were using the word ar in reference to the non-Muslim African natives. Many of those ar were enslaved and sold to European and Asian merchants by their Muslim captors, most of the merchants were from Portugal, which had established trading outposts along the coast of West Africa by that time. These European traders adopted the Arabic word and its derivatives.

Some of the earliest records of European usage of the word can be found in The Principal Navigations, Voyages, Traffiques and Discoveries of the English Nation (1589) by Richard Hakluyt. In volume 4, Hakluyt writes: "calling them Cafars and Gawars, which is, infidels or disbelievers". Volume 9 refers to the slaves (slaves called Cafari) and inhabitants of Ethiopia ("and they use to go in small shippes, and trade with the Cafars") by two different but similar names. The word is also used in reference to the coast of Africa as "land of Cafraria". The 16th century explorer Leo Africanus described the Cafri as "negroes", and he also stated that they constituted one of five principal population groups in Africa. He identified their geographical heartland as being located in a remote region of southern Africa, an area which he designated as Cafraria.

By the late 19th century, the word was in use in English-language newspapers and books. One of the Union-Castle Line ships operating off the South African coast was named SS ar. In the early 20th century, in his book The Essential ar, Dudley Kidd writes that the word ar had come to be used for all dark-skinned South African tribes. Thus, in many parts of South Africa, ar became synonymous with the word "native". Currently in South Africa, however, the word kaffir is regarded as a racial slur, applied pejoratively or offensively to blacks.

The song "Kafir" by the American technical death metal band Nile on its sixth album Those Whom the Gods Detest uses the violent attitudes that Muslim extremists have towards ar as subject matter.

The Nuristani people were formerly known as the Kaffirs of Kafiristan before the Afghan Islamization of the region.

The Kalash people who live in the Hindu Kush mountain range which is located south west of Chitral are referred to as ar by the Muslim population of Chitral.

In modern Spanish, the word cafre, derived from the Arabic word ar by way of the Portuguese language, also means 'uncouth' or 'savage'.

References

Notes

Citations

References

1. Rabbani, Faraz. (2016-06-06). "Are All Non-Muslims Deemed "Kafir"?".
2. (2020). "Handbook of Leaving Religion". [[Brill Publishers]].
3. (2001). "Belief and Unbelief: choice or destiny?". [[Brill Publishers]].
4. (1989). "The New Encyclopedia of Islam". Altamira Press.
5. (25 July 2018). "Non-Belief: An Islamic Perspective". Secularism and Nonreligion.
6. Sansarian, Eliz. (2000). "Religious Minorities in Iran". Cambridge University Press.
7. Akhtar, Shabbir. (1990). "A Faith for All Seasons: Islam and Western Modernity". Bellew.
8. (2018). "Studies in West African Islamic History, Volume 1: The Cultivators of Islam". [[Routledge]].
9. (2012). "Kāfir". [[Brill Publishers]].
10. (2012). "Muʾmin". [[Brill Publishers]].
11. Swartz, Merlin. (30 January 2015). "A medieval critique of Anthropomorphism". Brill.
12. (2012-04-24). "Dahrīya". Brill Online.
13. Rajan, Julie. (30 January 2015). "Al Qaeda's Global Crisis: The Islamic State, Takfir and the Genocide of Muslims". Routledge.
14. Bunt, Gary. (2009). "Muslims". The Other Press.
15. Pruniere, Gerard. (1 January 2007). "Darfur: The Ambiguous Genocide". Cornell University Press.
16. Emmanuel M. Ekwo ''Racism and Terrorism: Aftermath of 9/11'' Author House 2010 {{ISBN. 978-1-452-04748-5 page 143
17. "kafir".
18. Stillman, Norman A.. (1998). "The Jews of Arab Lands: A History and Source Book". [[Jewish Publication Society]].
19. (12 May 2010). "dhimmi". Infobase Publishing.
20. Mohammad Taqi al-Modarresi. (26 March 2016). "The Laws of Islam". Enlight Press.
21. The Jakarta Post. (2019-03-01). "NU calls for end to word 'infidels' to describe non-Muslims".
22. (أَعْجَبَ الْكُفَّارَ نَبَاتُهُ) [https://archive.today/20120723132603/http://www.bookstree.com/books/2/k4/k_p4_p314.htm Surah 57 Al-Hadid (Iron) Ayah 20]
23. (1877). "Mythology among the Hebrews".
24. (24 September 2006). "Ahl al-Quran".
25. (2002). "Jihad: The Trail of Political Islam". Harvard University Press.
26. "Kufr".
27. (2009). "Encyclopedia of Islam". Infobase Publishing.
28. Charles Adams. (2009). "Kufr". Oxford University Press.
29. Hawting, Gerald R. The idea of idolatry and the emergence of Islam: From polemic to history. Cambridge University Press, 1999. p. 49
30. Hawting, Gerald R. The idea of idolatry and the emergence of Islam: From polemic to history. Cambridge University Press, 1999. p. 49
31. Juan Cole University of Michigan, Ann Arbor ''Juan Cole University of Michigan, Ann Arbor''
32. Sharpe, Elizabeth Marie into the realm of smokeless fire: (Qur'an 55:14): A critical translation of al-Damiri's article on the jinn from "[[Hayat al-Hayawan al-Kubra]] 1953 The University of Arizona download date: 15 March 2020
33. Waldman, Marilyn. (Jul–Sep 1968). "The Development of the Concept of Kufr in the Qur'an". Journal of the American Oriental Society.
34. El Fadl, Khaled Abou (2005), ''The Great Theft: Wrestling Islam From The Extremists'', Harper San Francisco, p.216-217
35. Other Quranic verses strongly deny the [[Hypostatic union. deity of Jesus Christ]], son of Mary, and reproach the people who treat Jesus as equal with God as disbelievers who will have strayed from the path of God which would result in the entrance of [[Lake of fire. hellfire]].Joseph, Jojo, ''[http://theolibrary.shc.edu/resources/Quran-Gospel.pdf Qur'an-Gospel Convergence: The Qur'an's Message To Christians]'', {{Webarchive. link. (17 February 2022 , ''Journal of Dharma'', 1 (January–March 2010), pp. 55–76)
36. Mazuz, Haggai (2012) [https://journal.fi/store/article/download/9525/6759 "Christians in the Qurʾān: Some Insights Derived from the Classical Exegetic Approach"], ''Journal of Dharma'' 35, 1 (January–March 2010), 55–76
37. Schirrmacher, Christine, [http://www.worldevangelicals.org ''The Islamic view of Christians: Qur’an and Hadith'']
38. Carré, Olivier. (2003). "Mysticism and Politics: A Critical Reading of Fī Ẓilāl Al-Qur'ān by Sayyid Quṭb". Brill.
39. Gimaret, D.. (2012). "S̲h̲irk". Brill.
40. Smith, Jane I. "Shirk." The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World. Oxford University Press, 2009.
41. Waines, David. ''An Introduction to Islam'' (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press, 2003, p. 110. (Discusses the view of Hindus as mushrikūn in India.)
42. Yusuf, Imtiyaz. "Islam and Buddhism." The Oxford Handbook of Religious Diversity. Oxford University Press, 22 Jan. 2014, p. 112. (Discusses the historical Islamic perception of Buddhism as idolatrous.)
43. Esposito, John L. The Oxford Dictionary of Islam. Oxford University Press, 2003, p. 288. (States that religions such as Confucianism, Taoism, Shintoism, and indigenous religions are historically relegated to the category of mushrikūn for being outside the Ahl al-Kitāb category; also addresses the categorization of non-Prophetic Abrahamic traditions and other non-monotheistic faiths generally.)
44. Hallaq, Wael B.. (2009). "Sharī'a: Theory, Practice, Transformations". Cambridge University Press.
45. (1995). "The Middle East, A Brief History of the Last 2000 Years". Touchstone.
46. Lapidus, Ira M.. (2014). "A History of Islamic Societies". Cambridge University Press.
47. Izutsu, Toshihiko. (2006). "The Concept of Belief in Islamic Theology: A Semantic Analysis of Imān and Islām". Keio Institute of Cultural and Linguistic Studies at [[Keio University]].
48. Ruthven, Malise. (April 2002). "The Eleventh of September and the Sudanese mahdiya in the Context of Ibn Khaldun's Theory of Islamic History". International Affairs.
49. (1993). "E. J. Brill's First Encyclopaedia of Islam, 1913–1936". Brill.
50. (2018-06-03). "'You will get your head chopped off' – Scots Muslim writer threatened by extremists". The Herald.
51. (1995). "The Middle East: A Brief History of the Last 2000 Years". Touchstone.
52. (2009-05-01). "Glossary and Index of Terms: muʿāhad".
53. (2009-05-01). "Muʿāhid".
54. H. Patrick Glenn, ''Legal Traditions of the World''. [[Oxford University Press]], 2007, p. 219.
55. The French scholar Gustave Le Bon (author of ''La civilisation des Arabes'') writes "that despite the fact that the incidence of taxation fell more heavily on a Muslim than a non-Muslim, the non-Muslim was free to enjoy equally well with every Muslim all the privileges afforded to the citizens of the state. The only privilege that was reserved for the Muslims was the seat of the caliphate, and this, because of certain religious functions attached to it, which could not naturally be discharged by a non-Muslim." Mun'im Sirry (2014), ''Scriptural Polemics: The Qur'an and Other Religions'', p.179. [[Oxford University Press]]. {{ISBN. 978-0199359363.
56. (2007). "The Great Theft: Wrestling Islam from the Extremists". [[HarperOne]].
57. Michael Bonner. (2008). "Jihad in Islamic History". Princeton University Press.
58. Waines (2003). "An Introduction to Islam". ''Cambridge University Press''. p. 53
59. Winter, T. J., & Williams, J. A. (2002). ''Understanding Islam and the Muslims: The Muslim Family Islam and World Peace''. Louisville, Kentucky: Fons Vitae. p. 82. {{ISBN. 978-1-887752-47-3. Quote: The laws of Muslim warfare forbid any forced conversions, and regard them as invalid if they occur.
60. Lapidus, Ira M.. "Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History".
61. (2011). "The decline of Eastern Christianity under Islam". Fairleigh Dickinson University Press.
62. (2015). "Accusations of Unbelief in Islam: A Diachronic Perspective on Takfīr". Brill.
63. "Six Articles of the Islamic Faith".
64. (May 2023). "The Holy Quran Translation". ideas4islam.
65. Adapted from [[Ibn Kathir]]. "Types of Kufr (Disbelief)". SunnaOnline.com.
66. Ali, Abdullah Yusuf. (2001). "The Qur'an". Tahrike Tarsile Qur'an.
67. Ali, Abdullah Yusuf. (2001). "The Qur'an". Tahrike Tarsile Qur'an.
68. Ali, Abdullah Yusuf. (2001). "The Qur'an". Tahrike Tarsile Qur'an.
69. Ali, Abdullah Yusuf. (2001). "The Qur'an". Tahrike Tarsile Qur'an.
70. Ali, Abdullah Yusuf. (2001). "The Qur'an". Tahrike Tarsile Qur'an.
71. Ali, Abdullah Yusuf. (2001). "The Qur'an". Tahrike Tarsile Qur'an.
72. Ali, Abdullah Yusuf. (2001). "The Qur'an". Tahrike Tarsile Qur'an.
73. Ali, Abdullah Yusuf. (2001). "The Qur'an". Tahrike Tarsile Qur'an.
74. Ali, Abdullah Yusuf. (2001). "The Qur'an". Tahrike Tarsile Qur'an.
75. Gaborieau, Marc. (June 1985). "From Al-Beruni to Jinnah: Idiom, Ritual and Ideology of the Hindu-Muslim Confrontation in South Asia". Anthropology Today.
76. Holt et al., The Cambridge History of Islam – The Indian sub-continent, south-east Asia, Africa and the Muslim west, {{ISBN. 978-0521291378
77. Scott Levi (2002), Hindu beyond Hindu Kush: Indians in Central Asian Slave Trade, Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, Vol 12, Part 3, pp. 281–83
78. Engineer, Ashghar Ali. (13–19 February 1999). "Hindu-Muslim Problem: An Approach". Economic and Political Weekly.
79. Elliot and Dowson, [https://archive.org/stream/cu31924073036745#page/n285/mode/2up Tarikh-i Mubarak-Shahi], [[The History of India, as Told by Its Own Historians]] – The Muhammadan Period, Vol 4, Trubner London, p. 273
80. Elliot and Dowson, [https://archive.org/stream/historyindiaast04elligoog#page/n363/mode/2up Tabakat-i-Nasiri], The History of India, as Told by Its Own Historians – The Muhammadan Period, Vol 2, Trubner London, pp. 347–67
81. Elliot and Dowson, [https://archive.org/stream/cu31924073036745#page/n81/mode/2up Tarikh-i Mubarak-Shahi], The History of India, as Told by Its Own Historians – The Muhammadan Period, Vol 4, Trubner London, pp. 68–69
82. Raziuddin Aquil (2008), On Islam and Kufr in the Delhi Sultanate, in Rethinking a Millennium: Perspectives on Indian History (Editor: Rajat Datta), {{ISBN. 978-8189833367, Chapter 7, pp. 168–85
83. Taji-Farouki, Suha. (October 2000). "Islamists and the Threat of Jihad: Hizb al-Tahrir and al-Muhajiroun on Israel and the Jews". Middle Eastern Studies.
84. (8 March 2019). "The world's largest Islamic group wants Muslims to stop saying 'infidel'". The World, [[Public Radio International]].
85. (1 March 2019). "NU calls for end to word 'infidels' to describe non-Muslims". Niskala Media Tenggara.
86. Alusi. ''Roohul Ma'ani.'' Vol. 7. pp. 194-195.
87. Jalaludheen Suyuti. ''Masalikul Hunafa.'' p''.'' 33.
88. Ibn Hajar. ''Al-Minah al-Makkiyyah.'' p. 151.
89. [[Ibn Hajar al-Haytami. Al-Haytami, Ibn Hajar]]. ''Al-Minah al-Makkiyyah.'' p. 153.
90. Weltch, Yusuf. (2023-04-07). "Are the Parents of the Prophet (Blessings and Peace upon Him) Saved?".
91. alhassanain. [http://www.alhassanain.com/english/book/book/beliefs_library/religions_and_sects/devils_deception_of_the_nasibi_wahabis/003.html The Nasibis Kufr Fatwa – that the Prophet (s)'sparents were Kaafir (God forbid)] {{Webarchive. link. (18 October 2017)
92. Shia Pen. [http://www.shiapen.com/comprehensive/non-egalitarian-imamate/monotheistic-lineage-prophets-imams.html Chapter Four – The pure monotheistic lineage of Prophets and Imams (as)] {{Webarchive. link. (18 August 2017)
93. Gauvain, Richard. (2013). "Salafi Ritual Purity: In the Presence of God". [[Routledge]].
94. Al-Munajjid, Muhammad. (16 February 2004). "Are the parents of the Prophet (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him) in Paradise or in Hell?".
95. Campo, Juan Eduardo. (2009). "Encyclopedia of Islam". Infobase Publishing.
96. {{gutenberg author
97. {{gutenberg. Richard Hakluyt
98. {{gutenberg. Richard Hakluyt
99. (1526). "The History and Description of Africa". Hakluyt Society.
100. (1897). "Barnato a Suicide; The Kafir King Leaps Overboard....". [[The New York Times]].
101. (1905-10-18). "Kafir Band in Jail and Mighty Glad, Too". [[The New York Times]].
102. {{gutenberg. W. C. Scully
103. {{gutenberg. T. W. Hoit
104. "The Autobiography of Lieutenant-General Sir Harry Smith".
105. "Union Steamship Company".
106. Kidd, Dudley. (1925). "The Essential Kafir". The MacMillan Company.
107. Theal, Georg McCall. (1970). "Kaffir (Xhosa) Folk-Lore: A Selection from the Traditional Tales Current among the People Living on the Eastern Border of the Cape Colony with Copious Explanatory Notes". Negro Universities.
108. "Song Lyrics". Sound Media; Tone Media.
109. Welker, Glenn. "Kalash Kafirs of Chitral". Indigenous Peoples' Literature.
110. "cafre".