Israel and weapons of mass destruction

Terminology

The collective acronym used in Israel for "atomic, biological, and chemical" weapons is the Hebrew acronym: Aleph–Bet–Kaph ( or אב״ך for ).

Nuclear weapons

Main article: Nuclear weapons and Israel

It is believed that Israel possessed an operational nuclear weapons capability by 1967, with the mass production of nuclear warheads occurring immediately after the Six-Day War. It is unknown if Israel's reported thermonuclear weapons are in the megaton range. Israel is also reported to possess a wide range of different systems, including neutron bombs, tactical nuclear weapons, and suitcase nukes. Israel is believed to manufacture its nuclear weapons at the Negev Nuclear Research Center.

In 2021, Palestine made a declaration to the UN under the Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons that it had never hosted nuclear weapons to its knowledge, and saying Israel, as the occupying power, bore responsibility for any unlawful nuclear activities in the occupied Palestinian territories.

On 5 November 2023, amid the Gaza war, Heritage Minister Amihai Eliyahu stated that the use of atomic weapons in the Israeli invasion of the Gaza Strip could be "one of the possibilities". He was neither a member the security cabinet nor of the war cabinet, and was subsequently suspended from cabinet meetings.

Nuclear weapons delivery

Nuclear weapons delivery mechanisms include Jericho 3 missiles, with a range of 4,800 km to 6,500 km (though a 2004 source estimated its range at up to 11,500 km), and which are believed to provide a second-strike option, as well as regional coverage from road mobile Jericho 2 IRBMs. Israel's nuclear-capable ballistic missiles are believed to be buried so far underground that they would survive a nuclear attack. Additionally, Israel is believed to have an offshore nuclear second-strike capability, using submarine-launched nuclear-capable cruise missiles, which can be launched from the Israeli Navy's Dolphin-class submarines. The Israeli Air Force has F-15I and F-16I Sufa fighter aircraft which are capable of delivering tactical and strategic nuclear weapons at long distances using conformal fuel tanks and supported by their aerial refueling fleet of modified Boeing 707s.

In 2006, then Israeli Prime Minister Ehud Olmert appeared to acknowledge that Israel had nuclear weapons when he stated on German TV that Iran was "aspiring to have nuclear weapons as America, France, Israel, Russia". This admission was in contrast to the long-running Israeli government policy of deliberate ambiguity on whether it has nuclear weapons. The policy held that Israel would "not be the first to introduce nuclear weapons in the Middle East." Former International Atomic Energy Agency Director General Mohamed ElBaradei regarded Israel as a state possessing nuclear weapons. Much of what is known about Israel's nuclear program comes from revelations in 1986 by Mordechai Vanunu, a technician at the Negev Nuclear Research Center who served an 18-year prison sentence as a result. Israel has not signed the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons, but supports establishment of a Middle East Zone free of weapons of mass destruction.

Threats during the Gaza war

During the Gaza war, Israeli and US officials have made statements about nuclear weapons and Gaza characterized as genocidal intent. Israeli security analysts have also argued these statements undermine Israeli nuclear ambiguity.

On 9 October 2023, Likud member of the Knesset Tally Gotliv made a Twitter post calling for a nuclear-armed Jericho missile "strategic alert" and the use of a "doomsday weapon". She continued that "Only an explosion that shakes the Middle East will restore this country’s dignity, strength and security!".

Minister of Heritage Amihai Eliyahu responded "That's one way." to an interviewer asking if Israel should drop "some kind of atomic bomb" on Gaza "to kill everyone”. His remarks were criticized by the Israeli opposition, a number of Arab countries, Iran, and China. Palestinian foreign minister Riyad al-Maliki filed a complaint with the International Atomic Energy Agency arguing the statement was "an official recognition that Israel possesses nuclear weapons and weapons of mass destruction". Eliyahu was ostensibly suspended from the Israeli cabinet by Israeli prime minister Benjamin Netanyahu, but continued to participate in meetings by phone. Eliyahu's father Shmuel Eliyahu, the Chief Rabbi of the city of Safed, repeated the statement: "A nuclear bomb on Gaza is indeed an option!"

US Republican congressmen Lindsey Graham, Tim Walberg, and Randy Fine were criticized for referring to the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki to support the Israeli bombing of the Gaza Strip.

Nuclear weapons scholar Vincent Intondi argued that US and Israeli officials' statements are liable to prosecution under the Genocide Convention's incitement clause, but the convention obligates countries to prosecute incitement within their own borders.

Chemical weapons

In 1993, the U.S. Congress Office of Technology Assessment weapons of mass destruction proliferation assessment recorded Israel as a country generally reported as having undeclared offensive chemical warfare capabilities. Former US deputy assistant secretary of defense responsible for chemical and biological defense Dr. Bill Richardson said in 1998 "I have no doubt that Israel has worked on both chemical and biological offensive things for a long time... There's no doubt they've had stuff for years".

Possible nerve agents

In 1983 a report by the CIA stated that Israel, after "finding itself surrounded by frontline Arab states with budding CW capabilities, became increasingly conscious of its vulnerability to chemical attack... undertook a program of chemical warfare preparations in both offensive and protective areas... several indicators lead us to believe that they have available to them at least persistent and nonpersistent nerve agents, a mustard agent, and several riot-control agents matched with suitable delivery systems... possible tests were detected in 1976. In late 1982 a probable CW nerve agent production facility and a storage facility were identified at the Dimona Sensitive Storage Area in the Negev Desert. Other CW agent production is believed to exist within a well-developed Israeli chemical industry".

There are also speculations that a chemical weapons program might be located at the Israel Institute for Biological Research (IIBR) in Ness Ziona.

1992 El Al aircraft crash

In 1992, a cargo aircraft bound for Tel Aviv crashed into an apartment complex in Amsterdam, Netherlands. The subsequent health effects in survivors, and eventual revelations of the cargo manifest, showed at least three chemical precursors used in the production the nerve agents sarin and soman.

El Al Flight 1862 was flying from John F. Kennedy International Airport to Ben Gurion Airport via Amsterdam Airport Schiphol. In 1998, El Al spokesman Nachman Klieman publicly revealed the aircraft was carrying 190 liters of dimethyl methylphosphonate (DMMP), later a Schedule 2 chemical under the 1993 Chemical Weapons Convention, that can be used to produce nerve agents including sarin and soman. According to Jean Pascal Zanders, a European Union Institute for Security Studies scholar, DMMP was one of three sarin precursors on board, and sarin requires four precursors. The shipment was from a U.S. chemical plant to the Israel Institute for Biological Research under a U.S. Department of Commerce license, in accordance with international regulations at the time.

Israel claimed that the material was nontoxic, and its intended use was to test the filters of chemical weapon detectors. The Dutch foreign ministry confirmed that it had already known about the presence of chemicals on the aircraft. A lawyer for El Al working in The Hague, Robert Polak, told the Dutch government that Israel would not be forthcoming with information due to "state security reasons." According to the chemical weapons website CWInfo, the quantity involved was "too small for the preparation of a militarily useful quantity of sarin, but would be consistent with making small quantities for testing detection methods and protective clothing." Israeli-American non-proliferation scholar Avner Cohen argued that Israel attempted a coverup which instead drew fresh attention to the Israeli Institute for Biological Research.

Use of white phosphorus munitions

White phosphorus munitions are typically considered an incendiary weapon or smoke agent, and are not listed under the schedules of substances of the 1993 Chemical Weapons Convention. However, in 2005, the Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW) spokesperson stated that white phosphorus munitions are prohibited under the convention if they have been intentionally used for their caustic properties. Palestine has alleged that Israeli has violated the Chemical Weapons Convention by using white phosphorus.

In the 2008–2009 Gaza War, various human rights groups reported that Israel used white phosphorus munitions against the populated areas in the Palestinian territory of the Gaza Strip. In July 2009 Israel admitted it had used white phosphorus during the war but not as an anti-personnel weapon.

In the 2014 Gaza War, Human Rights Watch noted that Israel apparently did not use white phosphorus due to previous international criticism.

In October 2023, at the start of the Gaza war, Human Rights Watch verified that Israel used white phosphorus in Gaza City. On 1 December 2023, Palestine gave a statement to the OPCW, calling for an investigation into Israeli white phosphorus use in Gaza as a violation of the CWC, and criticizing Israel for benefitting from its status as a CWC signatory while refusing to ratify the treaty.

Israel also used white phosphorus in southern Lebanon during the Israel–Hezbollah conflict, injuring 173 people between October 2023 and June 2024 according to Human Rights Watch.

Cultural impact

Israeli use of white phosphorus has been an influence in Palestinian art, including cinema, drawings, and poems, as well as international artwork, such as an exhibition by Forensic Architecture.

Use of tear gas

Under the Chemical Weapons Convention, tear gases, formally called riot control agents, are considered chemical weapons and violate the treaty when used as a "method of warfare". Israeli forces have used tear gas against Palestinians, including in the First Intifada, Second Intifada, and 2021 Israel–Palestine crisis. In July 2025, Palestine alleged in a statement to the OPCW that Israel had violated the convention by using riot control agents as a method of warfare.

Biological weapons

Israel is suspected to have developed an offensive biological warfare capability, per the U.S. Congress Office of Technology Assessment. It is assumed that the Israel Institute for Biological Research in Ness Ziona develops vaccines and antidotes for chemical and biological warfare.{{cite web |access-date=February 11, 2007 It is speculated that Israel retains an active ability to produce and disseminate biological weapons, likely as a result of its extremely complex biodefense program. Israel has taken steps to strengthen its export control regulations on dual-use biotechnologies.

The Israeli intelligence agency Mossad is alleged to have assassinated the Palestinian militant Wadie Haddad using a toxin, either laced in his toothpaste or chocolate.

In 2025, Palestine cited its occupation by Israel as preventing full compliance with its 2018 ratification of the Biological Weapons Convention. In a statement to a UN working group on strengthening the convention, its mission wrote "we cannot guarantee whether any biological weapons, agents, or facilities exist or are produced on our land, including in illegal settlements, nor can we ensure effective customs control over such agents or their potential use by armed settlers."

Biological warfare in the 1948 Palestine War

Pre-state militants

After the declaration of independence, the members of the various pre-state militant groups mostly joined the IDF, including the controversial Lehi militant group. The Lehi militant who built the bombs for Operation Samson in 1947, the intended suicide attack in Jerusalem Central Prison in 1947, later had a leadership role in the Israeli military's nuclear, chemical, and biological weapons division (). He originally enlisted using his girlfriend's surname. Much of his work was purely defensive, such as the development of gas masks, but even that was conducted in great secrecy.

Notes

References

References

1. (2025-06-19). "What to know about Israel's nuclear weapons program".
2. Cohen, Avner. (2001). "Israel and chemical/biological weapons: History, deterrence, and arms control". The Nonproliferation Review.
3. (August 1996). "Israel's Nuclear Weapon Capability: An Overview". [[Wisconsin Project on Nuclear Arms Control]].
4. (2014). "Israeli nuclear weapons, 2014". [[Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists]].
5. (2014-04-14). "Carter says Israel has stockpile of over 300 nuclear bombs". [[Israel Hayom]].
6. Revesz, Rachael. (16 September 2016). "Colin Powell leaked emails: Israel has '200 nukes all pointed at Iran', former US secretary of state says". The Independent.
7. "Status of World Nuclear Forces – Federation Of American Scientists".
8. דבורי, ניר. (2014-03-26). "מטוס ה"חמקן" F-35 יוכל לשאת נשק גרעיני".
9. "Jericho 3". Center for Strategic and International Studies.
10. "Nuclear weapons – Israel". Federation of American Scientists.
11. Nuclear Proliferation International History Project. "Israel's Quest for Yellowcake: The Secret Argentina-Israel Connection, 1963–1966". [[Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars]].
12. "Nuclear Overview". NTI.
13. Matushek, Corie. (2019-02-25). "Nuclear Weapon Facts, History & Production".
14. Avey, Paul C.. (1973-10-06). "3. Egypt versus Israel". Cornell University Press.
15. Bronner, Ethan. (2010-10-13). "Vague, Opaque and Ambiguous — Israel's Hush-Hush Nuclear Policy". [[The New York Times]].
16. Sabet, Farzan. (2023). "Narratives of the Middle East WMD-Free Zone: Drivers, Themes, and Historical Accounts". UNIDIR.
17. "The Middle Eastern WMD-Free Zone and the NPT {{!}} Arms Control Association".
18. (2010-05-29). "Israel rejects call to join anti-nuclear treaty".
19. Kristensen, Hans M.. (2022-01-02). "Israeli nuclear weapons, 2021". Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists.
20. (August 1993). "Proliferation of Weapons of Mass Destruction: Assessing the Risks". [[U.S. Congress]] [[Office of Technology Assessment]].
21. (2023). "'Cast thy bread': Israeli biological warfare during the 1948 War". [[Middle Eastern Studies (journal).
22. Aderet, Ofer. (14 October 2022). "'Place the Material in the Wells': Docs Point to Israeli Army's 1948 Biological Warfare". Haaretz.
23. "Israel's Nuclear Weapon Capability: An Overview".
24. "Study on a Possible Israeli Strike on Iran's Nuclear Development Facilities". [[Center for Strategic and International Studies]].
25. Brower, Kenneth S., “A Propensity for Conflict: Potential Scenarios and Outcomes of War in the Middle East,” Jane's Intelligence Review, Special Report no. 14, (February 1997), 14-15.
26. Lewis, Jeffrey. (March 8, 2024). "Does Israel Really Have a Thermonuclear Weapon?".
27. [[Hersh, Seymour M.]] ''[[The Samson Option: Israel's Nuclear Arsenal and American Foreign Policy]]''. New York: Random House, 1991. {{ISBN. 0-394-57006-5 p.220
28. Kessler, Glenn. (2025-06-23). "Analysis {{!}} How Israel deceived the United States about its nuclear weapons program". The Washington Post.
29. State of Palestine Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Expatriates. (21 February 2021). "Declaration of the State of Palestine pursuant to article 2 of the treaty on prohibition of nuclear weapons".
30. "Far-right minister: Nuking Gaza is an option, population should 'go to Ireland or deserts'".
31. (2023-11-05). "Netanyahu suspends minister for suggesting Israel ‘nuke Gaza’".
32. Plushnick-Masti, Ramit. (August 25, 2006). "Israel Buys 2 Nuclear-Capable Submarines". [[The Washington Post]].
33. "Missile Survey: Ballistic and Cruise Missiles of Foreign Countries".
34. Ben-David, Alon. (October 1, 2009). "Israel seeks sixth Dolphin in light of Iranian 'threat'".
35. Pike, John. "Israel Air Force - Israel". Global security.
36. (December 12, 2006). "Israeli PM in nuclear arms hint". [[BBC Online]].
37. (December 12, 2006). "In a Slip, Israel's Leader Seems to Confirm Its Nuclear Arsenal". [[The New York Times]].
38. (December 12, 2006). "Israeli PM admits to nuclear weapons". [[ABC Online]].
39. Dawoud, Khaled. (December 2, 1999). "Redefining the bomb". [[Al-Ahram Weekly]].
40. Mohamed ElBaradei. (July 27, 2004). "Transcript of the Director General's Interview with Al-Ahram News". [[International Atomic Energy Agency]].
41. (July 13, 2008). "43 nations to seek Middle East free of WMDs". [[NBC News]].
42. Intondi, Vincent. (2024-07-02). "The Threat of Nuclear Bombing and Incitement to Genocide". Journal for Peace and Nuclear Disarmament.
43. "Commentary: Nuclear weapons, Israel and Gaza".
44. "Israel right-wing ministers' comments add fuel to Palestinian fears". NBC News.
45. Melman, Yossi. (2024-02-28). "Israeli Calls to 'Nuke Gaza' Are Undermining the Nuclear Ambiguity Doctrine".
46. "x.com".
47. (2023-10-10). "Israeli official calls for "doomsday" nuclear missile option".
48. "Application instituting proceedings and request for the indication of provisional measures {{!}} INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE".
49. Johnson, Jesse. (2023-11-06). "Israeli minister's Gaza nuclear comments spotlight opaque arsenal".
50. (2023-11-14). "China, Iran, Arab nations condemn Israeli minister's statement about dropping a nuclear bomb on Gaza".
51. "Israeli minister who called to nuke Gaza votes in cabinet meeting, despite suspension - AL-Monitor: The Middle Eastʼs leading independent news source since 2012".
52. "Palestine complains to IAEA about Israel's threat to drop nuclear bomb on Gaza".
53. Vargas, Ramon Antonio. (2024-03-31). "Congressman rebuked for call to bomb Gaza 'like Nagasaki and Hiroshima'". The Guardian.
54. (2024-06-01). "Talk of Nuclear Use in Gaza Draws Backlash".
55. "CAIR Urges Congress to Condemn Rep. Randy Fine's Call to 'Nuke Gaza,' Cites Escalating Pattern of Genocidal and Anti-American Rhetoric".
56. link. (April 7, 2015 ''. Accessed January 14, 2009.)
57. Stein, Jeff. (December 2, 1998). "Debunking the "ethno-bomb"". [[Salon.com]].
58. Matthew M. Aid. (September 10, 2013). "Exclusive: Does Israel Have Chemical Weapons Too?". Foreign Policy.
59. "1NIE on Israeli Chemical Weapons". scribd.com.
60. "IIBR".
61. Cohen, Avner. "Israel and Chemical/Biological Weapons: History, Deterrence, and Arms Control".
62. Cohen, Avner. (2001). "Israel and chemical/biological weapons: History, deterrence, and arms control". The Nonproliferation Review.
63. Ginsburg, Mitch. (2013-09-17). "‘Should there be a need’: The inside story of Israel’s chemical and biological arsenal". The Times of Israel.
64. (October 2, 1998). "Israel says El Al crash chemical 'non-toxic'". [[BBC]].
65. Greenberg, Joel. (2 October 1998). "Nerve-Gas Element Was in El Al Plane Lost in 1992 Crash". [[The New York Times]].
66. "Nerve Agent Precursor: Dimethyl Methyl Phosphonate".
67. (30 September 1998). "Grondstof gifgas in Boeing El Al". NRC Handelsblad.
68. (2022-03-25). "What is white phosphorus, and what does it mean that Russia may be using it in Ukraine? - CBS News".
69. Monbiot, George. (2005-11-22). "Behind the phosphorus clouds are war crimes within war crimes". The Guardian.
70. "Wayback Machine".
71. (29 July 2009). "The Operation in Gaza, 27 December 2008–18 January 2009 Factual and Legal Aspects". [[Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs]].
72. (2014-11-10). "Incendiary Weapons: Recent Use and Growing Opposition {{!}} Human Rights Watch".
73. (2023-10-12). "Israel: White Phosphorus Used in Gaza, Lebanon {{!}} Human Rights Watch".
74. (2024-06-05). "Lebanon: Israel’s White Phosphorous Use Risks Civilian Harm {{!}} Human Rights Watch".
75. (2023-08-02). "Gaza on Screen". Duke University Press.
76. "White Phosphorus for the Birth of Elia".
77. (2024-06-01). "Residential Block: An exhibition by Rafat Asad {{!}} The Palestinian Museum".
78. Gayle, Damien. (2021-08-16). "Artists pull work from Whitworth gallery after Palestine statement removal". The Guardian.
79. "Forensic Architecture".
80. Field, Matt. (2024-03-15). "Russia appears to be using chemical weapons in Ukraine. And admitting it.".
81. Feigenbaum, Anna. (2014-08-16). "100 Years of Tear Gas".
82. "BBC ON THIS DAY {{!}} 28 {{!}} 2000: 'Provocative' mosque visit sparks riots".
83. (2021-05-13). "Violence flares between Jews and Arabs on streets of Israel".
84. Permanent Mission of the State of Palestine to the International Organizations based in The Hague. (11 July 2025). "STATEMENT BY H.E. AMBASSADOR AMMAR HIJAZI, PERMANENT REPRESENTATIVE OF THE STATE OF PALESTINE TO THE OPCW, AT THE 109th SESSION OF THE EXECUTIVE COUNCIL UNDER AGENDA ITEM 5 – GENERAL DEBATE".
85. "Arms Control and Proliferation Profile: Israel {{!}} Arms Control Association".
86. Horovitz, David. (2018-01-26). "Mossad chose not to nab Mengele, didn’t hunt down Munich terrorists, book claims". The Times of Israel.
87. Permanent Observer Mission to the United Nations. (11 August 2025). "Statement by the State of Palestine, Sixth Session of the Working Group on the Strengthening of the Biological Weapons Convention".
88. (2018-01-03). "Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, Production and Stockpiling of Bacteriological (Biological) and Toxin Weapons and on Their Destruction".
89. "Ben-Ami (Chissin) Eliezer – "Yechezkel" – Freedom Fighters of Israel Heritage Association". lehi.org.il/en }} '''Translation note:''' In Hebrew it uses the acronyms {{langx.
90. (24 May 2023). link. [[Ynet]]. he. אליעזר רזניצקי. Eliezer Reznitsky, and the acronym is {{langx. he. אב"כ. A.B.C. with the letters [[Aleph]]–[[Bet (letter). Bet]]–[[Kaph]], which stands for "atomic, biological, and chemical".
91. link. (15 August 2023). he. רע"נ אב"כ. head of WMDs)
92. link
93. (25 May 2023). "In honor of IDF's 75th anniversary, first recruits share stories from the frontlines". [[Ynetnews]].
94. link. Haaretz הארץ – Hebrew edition. (19 October 2005)