Foreign relations of Germany

History

Main article: History of German foreign policy

Before 1866, Habsburg Austria and its German Confederation were the nominal leader in German affairs, but the Hohenzollern Kingdom of Prussia exercised increasingly dominant influence in German affairs, owing partly to its ability to participate in German Confederation politics through its Brandenburg holding, and its ability to influence trade through its Zollverein network. The question of excluding or including Austria's influence was settled by the Prussian victory in the Austro-Prussian War (also named the German War or the German-German War) in 1866, excluding the Austrian Empire from Germany. The unification of Germany was the political purpose of the Franco-Prussian War of 1870–71, in which the smaller German states joined behind remaining Prussia in a smashing victory over France. The German Empire was erected in 1871 by Otto von Bismarck, who dominated German and indeed all of European diplomatic history until he was forced to resign in 1890.

Germany's diplomatic weight increased by transitioning its economy and society from an agrarian country to Europe's second industrial powerhouse, which soon sought competition with the leading economic power of that era, Great Britain. As from 1884, Germany engaged – as the last major European power – in overseas colonization, but held only few colonies for economical exploitation, leaving Germany vulnerable to the protectionist mercantilism of other colonial powers who controlled the world's market of raw materials. Germany's development and transition led to internal tensions, which Emperor Wilhelm II., infamous for his Hun speech throughout Europe and an increasing diplomatic liability, sought to hedge with naval armament and increased imperialism much to the suspicion of the other European powers, especially the Entente Cordiale. Encircled by the Triple Entente, and due to the negligence of Germany's emperor and his diplomatic advisors by giving Austria-Hungary a "blank cheque" on treating Entente-allied Serbia for the assassination of Archduke Ferdinand, the Empire of Germany had to fight back its enemies in a war on multiple fronts and was cut off from international trade routes, leading to hunger and impoverishment in Europe's most populous country.

Germany was defeated in the battlefield in 1918, with its riches turning to spoils for the victors. The country had neither say nor seat at the table on which the victors negotiated how Germany and its treasures would be apportioned. The Treaty of Versailles forced Germany to convey away Alsace-Lorraine to France, a part of East Prussia to the Second Polish Republic and to accept the occupation of major industrial areas around Germany's centers for coal and steel production in Silesia and the Rhine province. When Germany was unable to fulfill the Allied demand for reparations in gold, France occupied the Ruhr valley to shave Germany's coal production. The Weimar Republic had to solve these crises to gain back its international stand in diplomacy, which lead Germany to joining the League of Nations in 1926.

However, the ransack and ongoing compromisation of Germany after World War I came with a toll on its internal stability and put the republic's attempt to establish peace and order to failure and its diplomatic influence from marginal to inept. Political extremist factions from left and right put the screws on Germany's politics by rallying against the weakened republic. International indifference to the events in the defeated country only turned into cautious unease after the Reichstag fire and Adolf Hitler's rise to power in 1933. The newly appointed chancellor ran on a platform of revising the Treaty of Versailles by rearmament, shaking off the shackles of occupation and "gaining room to live" (occupation) in the East. Racial and genocidal undertones in his program were internationally ignored as the new government was able to establish the long-sought peace and order in Germany and pursued international recognition as a stabilizing power: although Hitler's government withdrew Germany's membership from the League of Nations in 1933 much to the wary of the remaining nations, Germany managed to appease the world by hosting the Olympic Games of 1936 and presenting the world a stable, progressive and prospering country while secretly starting a program for rearmament at the same time. Shortly after the games, Germany signed the Anti-Comintern Pact with Japan, which sought to establish a common sphere of interest between Germany and Japan and their allied countries as well. Initially the pact was directed against the Soviet Union.

Despite its public presentation, Germany soon would raise suspicion by its rapidly progressing military programs, which weren't overlooked by international press. With massive interference in the internal affairs of Austria, which was unable to overcome economical challenges for 20 years after the fall of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, Germany managed to annex Austria in the Anschluss, reversing the resolution of the German war 70 years earlier and violating the Treaty of Versailles once again, which forbade the union of both countries. Germany tested its newly gained strength on boosting the Sudeten crisis of 1938, as Sudeten Germans, attracted by Germany and its success, rebelled against Czechoslovak authorities. The crisis lead to the Munich Agreement, the first gain in territory for Germany since World War I. However, Hitler was dissatisfied with how the crisis was solved peacefully. The policy of appeasement by Neville Chamberlain allowed for Hitler to violate the agreement shortly after signing it, by dissolving the Czechoslovak government and occupying the rest of the country in 1939, followed by the wary European powers of France and Great Britain to draw a red line for Poland. Germany signed the Pact of Steel with Italy, shaping with the Anti-Comintern Pact with Japan before and with the Tripartite Pact later on, what will come to be the Axis alliance.

After signing the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact with the USSR on 24 August 1939, which led Japan to distance itself from Germany until the Tripartite Pact was signed in 1940, Germany invaded Poland on 1 September 1939, with the declaration of war followed by Britain and France three days later. The declarations of war did little to change the outcome of the Blitzkrieg against Poland, which soon was occupied by German and Soviet forces. Less than two years later, Germany would invade the USSR under violation of the pact. The same year, the Axis-allied Japanese Empire would attack Pearl Harbor, and as Germany was bound to aid Japan diplomatically by the Tripartite Pact, Hitler declared war against the USA four days after, unintentionally ending any remaining meaningful isolationist opposition in the U.S. against joining the European war and changing the U.S. stance to the rest of the world to this day.

The following years, German diplomacy is occupied with supporting the war effort and keeping together the Axis alliance as well as attending to the minor Axis-allied governments in Europe, such as Hungary, Romania, Slovakia, Bulgaria (all Warsaw Pact states after the Soviet Union won the war in the East) and Croatia to facilitate the "Final Solution". As Germany found itself on the losing side over time, Germany's diplomacy lost its ability to back up the increasingly futile war effort. Only the invocation of favors and long-lasting diplomatic aid and relationships with countries like Chile and Argentina, as well as their own network, enabled the escape of some Nazi high-ranks and collaborators into exile, such as Dr. Josef Mengele. The government of Germany, and therefore its diplomatic corps, ceased to exist according to the Allied Control Council's 1st Proclamation.

Germany as a state was only reestablished in August 1949 in three of the four Allied occupation zones, but international representation for the state was not reestablished until 15 March 1951. As a habit, chancellor Konrad Adenauer employed former Nazis for his administration, and for foreign affairs, he employed former NSDAP diplomats, which left a dark stain on the founding history of the newly formed Federal Foreign Office as a democratic institution.

The first years of the Bonn republic were characterized by the efforts of a second democratic Germany to rehabilitate itself in the eyes of the world. Adenauer's government decided to align West Germany with the Western bloc and made controversial decisions in its early years. Only ten years after World War II has ended, his government decided to rearm Germany once again, founding the Bundeswehr in 1955 and joining the NATO, after he discarded Stalin's attempt to negotiate reunification and neutralization of Germany in 1952. The years of Germany's division and the relations of the two German states, West-German FRG and East-German GDR, to each other mirrored the grander conflict at the Iron Curtain and the two systems. Mutual distrust, exclusion and agitation against one another captured the division of the two German nations. The FRG would characterize any attempt to open diplomatic relations to "the other German state" as an unfriendly act which would provoke the closure of the West-German diplomatic mission in the attempting country. The GDR assumed the sole right of representation for all Germans within the Eastern bloc. However, West Germany attracted some of the communist countries to open diplomatic missions despite the risk of spurning the East-German government, as the Eastern bloc was in dire need of hard currency and its members tried to open channels to markets which would trade in such.

In the 1970s, chancellor Willy Brandt would attempt to ease the relations between the two German states to prevent future confrontations like the Cuba crisis a few years earlier, in which the world narrowly escaped a World War III and nuclear annihilation. West Germany acknowledged the borders which were established after World War II, namely the Oder–Neisse line with Poland. The chancellor's Kniefall von Warschau would mark a major pivot point in the international perception of Germany, from a defeated and criminal warmongering power to a society which collectively would feel ashamed by its past, would swear to abstain military power and dominance and to uphold peace and to seek friendly relations with the People Germany wronged in the past. The gesture found cautiously positive remarks internationally, and Willy Brandt was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize of 1971, to this day the only German chancellor ever being awarded the prize. 1973, both East and West Germany became United Nations members.

Willy Brandt's policies helped grander diplomatic efforts between the two super powers and would bear fruit shortly after his tenure, when the Helsinki Accords were signed in 1975. The Accords enabled organizations of the civil society and NGOs to assess whether the Soviet Union would abide the legally binding declarations it signed, for the rule of law, civil liberties and guarantees of property. They also lead to the arising of human rights activism in the East bloc and to media activity directed from the West towards the East.

Especially for the partaking East German government, which was confident at first the Accords would denote a victory for East bloc diplomacy, the Accords would turn out to be a calamity in internal affairs. West German media, consumed by the East German population despite attempts of inhibition, informed their audience about their rights the East German government just signed off on, very much including the sensitive issue of freedom of movement, especially between the two German states which shared a fortified and dangerous-to-life border, symbolized by the Berlin Wall. Ever since the Accords have been signed, the East German government had to face increasing mail of citizens who petitioned for "permanent departure" to West Germany, invoking the Helsinki Accords.

As East Germany's economical situation became untenable in the 1980s, West German prime minister of Bavaria, Franz Josef Strauß, procured a new credit line for the GDR in 1983, which (by its interest) would impede the economical collapse of East Germany. Combined with the growing frictions within East Germany's society and the continuous escape movement of Germans through Eastern Europe and diplomatic missions of Germany, the GDR would survive its 40th anniversary and peaceful protests by only less than a year, with the collapse of its communist government heavily quickened by negotiations of West Germany to enable the "permanent departure" of Germans by a non-stop train from the Czech Republic through East Germany to West Germany. The departure met intense media coverage, creating a lasting impression on both sides of the German border and forecasting the eventual fall of the Berlin Wall.

In 1990, both German states with both freely elected governments, as well as the four former occupying powers, would sign an agreement about Germany's future. The agreement became effective on 3 October of the same year, which became the German Unity Day.

Primary institutions and actors

Federal Cabinet

The three cabinet-level ministries responsible for guiding Germany's foreign policy are the Ministry of Defense, the Ministry of Economic Cooperation and Development and the Federal Foreign Office. In practice, most German federal departments play some role in shaping foreign policy in the sense that there are few policy areas left that remain outside of international jurisdiction. The bylaws of the Federal Cabinet (as delineated in Germany's Basic Law), however, assign the Federal Foreign Office a coordinating function. Accordingly, other ministries may only invite foreign guests or participate in treaty negotiations with the approval of the Federal Foreign Office.

Bundestag

With respect to foreign policy, the Bundestag acts in a supervisory capacity. Each of its committees – most notably the foreign relations committee – oversees the country's foreign policy. The consent of the Bundestag (and insofar as Länder are impacted, the Bundesrat) is required to ratify foreign treaties. If a treaty legislation passes first reading, it is referred to the Committee on Foreign Affairs, which is capable of delaying ratification and prejudice decision through its report to the Bundestag.

In 1994, a full EU Committee was also created for the purpose of addressing the large flow of EU-related topics and legislation. Also, the committee has the mandate to speak on behalf of the Bundestag and represent it when deciding an EU policy position. A case in point was the committee's involvement regarding the European Union's eastern enlargement wherein the Committee on Foreign Affairs is responsible for relations with ECE states while the EU Committee is tasked with the negotiations.

NGOs

There is a raft of NGOs in Germany that engage foreign policy issues. These NGOs include think-tanks (German Council on Foreign Relations), single-issue lobbying organizations (Amnesty International), as well as other organizations that promote stronger bilateral ties between Germany and other countries (Atlantic Bridge). While the budgets and methods of NGOs are distinct, the overarching goal to persuade decision-makers to the wisdom of their own views is a shared one. In 2004, a new German governance framework, particularly on foreign and security policy areas, emerged where NGOs are integrated into actual policymaking. The idea is that the cooperation between state and civil society groups increases the quality of conflict resolution, development cooperation and humanitarian aid for fragile states. The framework seeks to benefit from the expertise of the NGOs in exchange for these groups to have a chance for influencing foreign policy.

Disputes

In 2001, the discovery that the terrorist cell which carried out the attacks against the United States on 11 September 2001, was based in Hamburg, sent shock waves through the country.

The government of Chancellor Gerhard Schröder backed the following U.S. military actions, sending Bundeswehr troops to Afghanistan to lead a joint NATO program to provide security in the country after the ousting of the Taliban.

Nearly all of the public was strongly against America's 2003 invasion of Iraq, and any deployment of troops. This position was shared by the SPD/Green government, which led to some friction with the United States.

In August 2006, the German government disclosed a botched plot to bomb two German trains. The attack was to occur in July 2006 and involved a 21-year-old Lebanese man, identified only as Youssef Mohammed E. H. Prosecutors said Youssef and another man left suitcases stuffed with crude propane-gas bombs on the trains.

As of February 2007, Germany had about 3,000 NATO-led International Security Assistance Force force in Afghanistan as part of the war on terrorism, the third largest contingent after the United States (14,000) and the United Kingdom (5,200). German forces are mostly in the more secure north of the country.

However, Germany, along with some other larger European countries (with the exception of the UK and the Netherlands), have been criticised by the UK and Canada for not sharing the burden of the more intensive combat operations in southern Afghanistan.

Global initiatives

Humanitarian aid and development cooperation

Germany is the second largest net contributor to the United Nations. The development policy of the Federal Republic of Germany is an independent area of German foreign policy. It is formulated by the Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development (BMZ) and carried out by the implementing organisations, which are currently working in more than 60 countries. The German government sees development policy as a joint responsibility of the international community. In 2024 Germany was the second biggest donor of development cooperation after the United States, spending 32.4 billion USD, equivalent to 0.67% of GNI, on Official development assistance.

Ecological involvement

Main article: Kyoto protocol, Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

International organizations

Germany is a member of the P5+1, Council of Europe, European Union, European Space Agency, G4, G7, International Monetary Fund, NATO, OECD, Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe, UN, World Bank Group and the World Trade Organization.

European Union

Main article: Foreign relations of the European Union

European integration has gone a long way since the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) and the Elysée Treaty. Peaceful collaborations with its neighbors remain one of Germany's biggest political objectives, and Germany has been on the forefront of most achievements made in European integration:

• Maastricht Treaty

Most of the social issues facing European countries in general: immigration, aging populations, straining social-welfare and pension systems – are all important in Germany. Germany seeks to maintain peace through the "deepening" of integration among current members of the European Union member states

• European Defence Force
• Introduction of the single currency € Euro

Germany has been the largest net contributor to EU budgets for decades (in absolute terms – given Germany's comparatively large population – not per capita) and seeks to limit the growth of these net payments in the enlarged union.

• European Constitution

NATO

Under the doctrine introduced by the 2003 Defense Policy Guidelines, Germany continues to give priority to the transatlantic partnership with the United States through the North Atlantic Treaty Organization. However, Germany is giving increasing attention to coordinating its policies with the European Union through the Common Foreign and Security Policy.

UN

Main article: Germany and the United Nations

The German Federal Government began an initiative to obtain a permanent seat in the United Nations Security Council, as part of the Reform of the United Nations. This would require approval of a two-thirds majority of the member states and approval of all five Security Council veto powers.

This aspiration could be successful due to Germany's good relations with the People's Republic of China and the Russian Federation. Germany is a stable and democratic republic and a G7 country which are also favourable attributes. The United Kingdom and France support German ascension to the supreme body. The U.S. is sending mixed signals.

NATO member states, including Germany, decided not to sign the UN treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons, a binding agreement for negotiations for the total elimination of nuclear weapons, supported by more than 120 nations.

Diplomatic relations

List of countries which the Federal Republic of Germany maintains diplomatic relations with:

Bilateral relations

Africa

Americas

Asia

Europe

; Balkans

The German government was a strong supporter of the enlargement of NATO.

Germany was one of the first nations to recognize Croatia and Slovenia as independent nations, rejecting the concept of Yugoslavia as the only legitimate political order in the Balkans (unlike other European powers, who first proposed a pro-Belgrade policy). This is why Serb authorities sometimes referred to "new German imperialism" as one of the main reasons for Yugoslavia's collapse. German troops participate in the multinational efforts to bring "peace and stability" to the Balkans.

; Central Europe Weimar triangle (France, Germany and Poland); Germany continues to be active economically in the states of Central Europe, and to actively support the development of democratic institutions. In the 2000s, Germany has been arguably the centerpiece of the European Union (though the importance of France cannot be overlooked in this connection).

Oceania

Notes

References

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169. "Auswärtiges Amt – Oman".
170. "statestimes.com".
171. "Auswärtiges Amt – Pakistan".
172. "Auswärtiges Amt – Palästinensische Gebiete".
173. "Auswärtiges Amt – Philippinen".
174. "Auswärtiges Amt – Katar".
175. "Auswärtiges Amt – Saudi-Arabien".
176. "Auswärtiges Amt – Singapur".
177. "Auswärtiges Amt – Bilateral relations".
178. "Auswärtiges Amt – Korea (Republik Korea, Südkorea)".
179. "Deutsche Botschaft Seoul – Startseite".
180. "Auswärtiges Amt – Sri Lanka".
181. Auswärtiges Amt. "Syrien".
182. nisreen. (2025-03-20). "Germany reopens its embassy in Syria, 13 years after it was closed".
183. "Germany's Juggling Act between Taiwan and China".
184. (2015-04-02). "德國在台協會 Deutsches Institut Taipei - 地理位置".
185. "Auswärtiges Amt – Tadschikistan".
186. "Auswärtiges Amt – Thailand".
187. Spooner, Andrew. (13 May 2007). "Berlin: Shish And Sauerkraut To Go". [[The Independent]].
188. "Auswärtiges Amt – Türkei".
189. "Auswärtiges Amt – Turkmenistan".
190. "Auswärtiges Amt – Vereinigte Arabische Emirate".
191. "Auswärtiges Amt – Usbekistan".
192. "Auswärtiges Amt – Vietnam".
193. "Auswärtiges Amt – Jemen".
194. Crawford, Beverly. (1996). "Explaining Defection from International Cooperation: Germany's Unilateral Recognition of Croatia". World Politics.
195. "Auswärtiges Amt – Albanien".
196. "Auswärtiges Amt – Andorra".
197. "Auswärtiges Amt – Österreich".
198. "Belarusian embassy in Berlin(in German and Russian only)". Belarus-botschaft.de.
199. "Auswärtiges Amt – Belarus".
200. "embassy in Minsk (in German and Russian only)". Minsk.diplo.de.
201. "Auswärtiges Amt – Belgien".
202. "Auswärtiges Amt – Bosnien und Herzegovina".
203. "Auswärtiges Amt – Bulgarien".
204. "Croatian embassy in Berlin (in croat and German only)". De.mfa.hr.
205. "Auswärtiges Amt – Kroatien".
206. "Cyprus embassy in Berlin".
207. "Auswärtiges Amt – Zypern".
208. "Auswärtiges Amt – Tschechien".
209. "Auswärtiges Amt – Dänemark".
210. "Auswärtiges Amt – Estonia".
211. "Auswärtiges Amt – Finnland".
212. "Archived copy".
213. "Auswärtiges Amt – Frankreich".
214. "Auswärtiges Amt – Griechenland".
215. "Auswärtiges Amt – Georgien".
216. "Auswärtiges Amt – Heiliger Stuhl / Vatikan".
217. "Hungarian embassy in Berlin (in German and Hungarian only)". Mfa.gov.hu.
218. "Auswärtiges Amt – Ungarn".
219. "Auswärtiges Amt – Island".
220. "Auswärtiges Amt – Irland".
221. "Auswärtiges Amt – Italien".
222. "Auswärtiges Amt – Kosovo".
223. "July 2008-kosovogeberkonferenz__en.html".
224. Text in ''League of Nations Treaty Series'', vol. 2, pp. 92–99
225. (25 September 2010). "Latvian embassy in Berlin (in German and Latvian only)". Mfa.gov.lv.
226. "Auswärtiges Amt – Lettland".
227. "German embassy in Riga (in German and Latvian only)". Riga.diplo.de.
228. "Auswärtiges Amt – Liechtenstein".
229. "Auswärtiges Amt – Litauen".
230. deutschebotschaft-wilna.lt. "German embassy in Vilnius (in German and Lithuanian only)". Deutschebotschaft-wilna.lt.
231. "Auswärtiges Amt – Luxemburg".
232. "Malta in Germany - Malta fil-Ġermanja".
233. "Auswärtiges Amt – Malta".
234. "Auswärtiges Amt – Republik Moldau".
235. "Auswärtiges Amt – Monaco".
236. "Auswärtiges Amt – Montenegro".
237. "Auswärtiges Amt – Niederlande".
238. "Auswärtiges Amt – Nordmazedonien".
239. "Auswärtiges Amt – Norwegen".
240. {{in lang. link. (25 June 2009 . Page gives Polish [[Internetowa encyklopedia PWN). PWN Encyklopedia]] as reference.
241. "Auswärtiges Amt – Polen".
242. "Auswärtiges Amt – Portugal".
243. "Auswärtiges Amt – Rumänien".
244. "Auswärtiges Amt – Russische Föderation".
245. "Auswärtiges Amt – San Marino".
246. "Serbian embassy in Berlin (in German and Serbian only)". [[Embassy of Serbia, Berlin]].
247. "Serbian general consulates in Germany (in German and Serbian only)". Konzulati-rs.de.
248. "Auswärtiges Amt – Serbien".
249. "Auswärtiges Amt – Slowakei".
250. (9 December 2010). "Germany embassy in Bratislava (in German and Slovakian only)". Pressburg.diplo.de.
251. "Auswärtiges Amt – Slowenien".
252. "Official Visit of the German Foreign Minister Sigmar Gabriel, for the opening of diplomatic relations between Germany and the Order of Malta".
253. "Diplomatische Beziehungen zum Malteserorden (in German only)". Embassy of the Federal Republic of Germany to the Holy See.
254. "Auswärtiges Amt – Spanien".
255. "Auswärtiges Amt – Schweden".
256. "Auswärtiges Amt – Schweiz".
257. "Auswärtiges Amt – Ukraine".
258. "Großbritannien / Vereinigtes Königreich: Steckbrief".
259. "German Embassy London".
260. "British Embassy Berlin".
261. [[HM Revenue and Customs]]. (25 May 2013). "Germany: tax treaties".
262. (22 October 2024). "Landmark UK-Germany defence agreement to strengthen our security and prosperity".
263. "Auswärtiges Amt – Australien".
264. "Auswärtiges Amt – Fidschi".
265. "Auswärtiges Amt – Kiribati".
266. "Auswärtiges Amt – Marshallinseln".
267. "Auswärtiges Amt – Mikronesien".
268. "Auswärtiges Amt – Nauru".
269. "Auswärtiges Amt – Neuseeland".
270. "Auswärtiges Amt – Palau".
271. "Auswärtiges Amt – Papua-Neuguinea".
272. "Auswärtiges Amt – Samoa".
273. "Auswärtiges Amt – Salomonen".
274. "Auswärtiges Amt – Tonga".
275. "Auswärtiges Amt – Tuvalu".
276. "Auswärtiges Amt – Vanuatu".