Compassion

Etymology

The English noun compassion, meaning "to suffer together with", comes from Latin. Its prefix com- comes directly from com, an archaic version of the Latin preposition and affix cum (= with); the -passion segment is derived from passus, past participle of the deponent verb patior, patī, passus sum. Compassion is thus related in origin, form and meaning to the English noun patient (= one who suffers), from patiens, present participle of the same patior, and is akin to the Greek verb πάσχειν (grc, to suffer) and to its cognate noun πάθος (= grc).{{multiref2

Theories on conceptualizing compassion

Theoretical perspectives show contrasts in their approaches to compassion. :* Compassion is simply a variation of love or sadness, not a distinct emotion. :* From the perspective of evolutionary psychology, compassion can be viewed as a distinct emotional state, which can be differentiated from distress, sadness, and love.{{multiref2 :* Compassion is, however, a synonym of empathic distress, which is characterized by the feeling of distress in connection with another person's suffering.{{multiref2 :* According to Thupten Jinpa, compassion is a sense of concern that arises in us in the face of someone who is in need or someone who is in pain. It is accompanied by a kind of a wishing (i.e. desire) to see the relief or end of that situation, along with wanting (i.e. motivation) to do something about it. Compassion is, however, not pity, neither an attachment, nor the same as empathetic feeling, nor even just simply wishful thinking. Compassion is basically a variation of love. To further this variation of love, Skalski and Aanstoos, in their article The Phenomenology of Change Beyond Tolerating, describe compassion with the definition of alleviate in mind. In the definition for alleviate there is no mention of taking, stopping, or fixing someone's suffering. It is simply trying to make it less severe. This has a connotation of desperation of sorts. Desiring so little from such a dire situation can be described as inspiring feelings to help with another's suffering in any way. :* Emma Seppala distinguishes compassion from empathy and altruism as follows: "... The definition of compassion is often confused with that of empathy. Empathy, as defined by researchers, is the visceral or emotional experience of another person's feelings. It is, in a sense, an automatic mirroring of another's emotion, like tearing up at a friend's sadness. Altruism is an action that benefits someone else. It may or may not be accompanied by empathy or compassion, for example, in the case of making a donation for tax purposes. Although these terms are related to compassion, they are not identical. Compassion often involves an empathic response and altruistic behavior; however, compassion is defined as the emotional response when perceiving suffering which involves an authentic desire to help."

In addition, the more a person knows about the human condition and human experiences, the more vivid the route to identification with suffering becomes. Identifying with another person is an essential process for human beings, something that is even illustrated by infants who begin to mirror the facial expressions and body movements of their mother as early as the first days of their lives. Compassion is recognized through identifying with other people (i.e. perspective-taking), the knowledge of human behavior, the perception of suffering, the transfer of feelings, and the knowledge of goal and purpose-changes in sufferers which leads to the decline of their suffering.

Personality psychology agrees that human suffering is always individual and unique. Suffering can result from psychological, social, and physical trauma which happens in acute and chronic forms. Suffering has been defined as the perception of a person's impending destruction or loss of integrity, which continues until the threat is vanquished or the person's integrity can be restored.

Compassion therefore has three major requirements: the compassionate person must feel that the troubles that evoke their feelings are serious; the belief that the sufferers' troubles are not self-inflicted; and the ability to picture oneself with the same problems in a non-blaming, non-shaming manner.

Because the compassion process is highly related to identifying with another person and is possible among people from other countries, cultures, locations, etc., compassion is characteristic of democratic societies.

The role of compassion as a factor contributing to individual or societal behavior has been the topic of continuous debate. In contrast to the process of identifying with other people, a complete absence of compassion may require ignoring or disapproving identification with other people or groups. Earlier studies established the links between interpersonal violence and cruelty which leads to indifference.{{multiref2

On one hand, Thomas Nagel, for instance, critiques Joshua Greene by suggesting that he is too quick to conclude utilitarianism specifically from the general goal of constructing an impartial morality; for example, he says, Immanuel Kant and John Rawls offer other impartial approaches to ethical questions.

In his defense against the possible destructive nature of passions, Plato compared the human soul to a chariot: the intellect is the driver and the emotions are the horses, and life is a continual struggle to keep the emotions under control. In his defense of a solid universal morality, Immanuel Kant saw compassion as a weak and misguided sentiment. "Such benevolence is called soft-heartedness and should not occur at all among human beings", he said of it.

Psychology

Compassion has become associated with and researched in the fields of positive psychology and social psychology. Compassion is a process of connecting by identifying with another person. This identification with others through compassion can lead to increased motivation to do something in an effort to relieve the suffering of others.

Compassion is an evolved function from the harmony of a three grid internal system: contentment-and-peace system, goals-and-drives system, and threat-and-safety system. Paul Gilbert defines these collectively as necessary regulated systems for compassion.

Paul Ekman describes a "taxonomy of compassion" including: emotional recognition (knowing how another person feels), emotional resonance (feeling emotions another person feels), familial connection (care-giver-offspring), global compassion (extending compassion to everyone in the world), sentient compassion (extended compassion to other species), and heroic compassion (compassion that comes with a risk).

Ekman also distinguishes proximal (i.e. in the moment) from distal compassion (i.e. predicting the future; affective forecasting): "...it has implications in terms of how we go about encouraging compassion. We are all familiar with proximal compassion: Someone falls down in the street, and we help him get up. That's proximal compassion: where we see someone in need, and we help them. But, when I used to tell my kids, 'Wear a helmet,' that's distal compassion: trying to prevent harm before it occurs. And that requires a different set of skills: It requires social forecasting, anticipating harm before it occurs, and trying to prevent it. Distal compassion is much more amenable to educational influences, I think, and it's our real hope." Distal compassion also requires perspective-taking.

Compassion is associated with psychological outcomes including increases in mindfulness and emotion regulation.

While empathy plays an important role in motivating caring for others and in guiding moral behavior, Jean Decety's research demonstrates that this is far from being systematic or irrespective to the social identity of the targets, interpersonal relationships, and social context. He proposes that empathic concern (compassion) has evolved to favor kin and members of one own social group, can bias social decision-making by valuing one single individual over a group of others, and this can frontally conflict with principles of fairness and justice.

Compassion fatigue

People with a higher capacity or responsibility to empathize with others may be at risk for "compassion fatigue", also called "secondary traumatic stress". Examples of people at risk for compassion fatigue are those who spend significant time responding to information related to suffering.{{multiref2

People can alleviate sorrow and distress by doing self-care activities on a regular basis. helps to guide people to recognize the impact and circumstances of past events. After people , they are able to find the causes of compassion fatigue in their daily life. Practice of nonjudgmental compassion can prevent fatigue and burnout. Some methods that can help people to heal compassion fatigue include physical activity, eating healthy food with every meal, good relations with others, enjoying interacting with others in the community, writing a journal frequently, and sleeping enough every day. The practice of mindfulness and self-awareness also helps with compassion fatigue.

Conditions that influence compassion

Psychologist Paul Gilbert identifies several factors that can reduce a person's willingness to show compassion toward others. These include lower levels of perceived likability, competence, deservedness, and empathic capacity, as well as higher levels of self-focused competitiveness, anxiety and depression, feelings of being overwhelmed, and inhibiting influences within social structures and systems.{{multiref2

Compassion fade

Compassion fade is the tendency of people to experience a decrease in empathy as the number of people in need of aid increases. The term was coined by psychologist Paul Slovic.{{multiref2

In an examination of the motivated regulation of compassion in the context of large-scale crises, such as natural disasters and genocides, research established that people tend to feel more compassion for single identifiable victims than single anonymous victims or large masses of victims (the Identifiable victim effect).{{multiref2

In laboratory research, psychologists are exploring how concerns about becoming emotionally exhausted may motivate people to curb their compassion for—and dehumanize—members of stigmatized social groups, such as homeless individuals and drug addicts.

Neurobiology

Olga Klimecki (et al.), found differential (non-overlapping) fMRI brain activation areas in respect to compassion and empathy: compassion was associated with the mOFC, pregenual ACC, and ventral striatum. Empathy, in contrast, was associated with the anterior insula and the anterior midcingulate cortex (aMCC).

In one study conducted by James Rilling and Gregory Berns, neuroscientists at Emory University, subjects' brain activities were recorded while they helped someone in need. It was found that while the subjects were performing compassionate acts, the caudate nucleus and anterior cingulate regions of the brain were activated, the same areas of the brain associated with pleasure and reward. One brain region, the subgenual anterior cingulate cortex/basal forebrain, contributes to learning altruistic behavior, especially in those with trait empathy.{{multiref2

In a 2009 small fMRI experiment, researchers at the Brain and Creativity Institute studied strong feelings of compassion for and physical pain in others. Both feelings involved an expected change in activity in the anterior insula, anterior cingulate, hypothalamus, and midbrain, but they also found a previously undescribed pattern of cortical activity on the posterior medial surface of each brain hemisphere, a region involved in the default mode of brain function, and implicated in . Compassion for social pain in others was associated with strong activation in the interoceptive, inferior/posterior portion of this region, while compassion for physical pain in others involved heightened activity in the exteroceptive, superior/anterior portion. Compassion for social pain activated this superior/anterior section, to a lesser extent. Activity in the anterior insula related to compassion for social pain peaked later and endured longer than that associated with compassion for physical pain. Compassionate emotions toward others affect the prefrontal cortex, inferior frontal cortex, and the midbrain. Feelings and acts of compassion stimulate areas known to regulate homeostasis, such as the anterior insula, the anterior cingulate, the mesencephalon, the insular cortex and the hypothalamus, supporting the hypothesis that social emotions use some of the same basic devices involved in other, primary emotions.

Compassion in practice

Medicine

Compassion is one of the most important attributes for physicians practicing medical services. Compassion brings about the desire to do something to help the sufferer. That desire to be helpful is not compassion, but it does suggest that compassion is similar to other emotions in that it motivates behaviors to reduce the tension brought on by the emotion. Physicians generally identify their central duties as the responsibility to put the patient's interests first, including the duty not to harm, to deliver proper care, and to maintain confidentiality. Compassion is seen in each of those duties because of its direct relation to the recognition and treatment of suffering. Physicians who use compassion understand the effects of sickness and suffering on human behavior. Compassion may be closely related to love and the emotions evoked in sickness and suffering. This is illustrated by the relationship between patients and physicians in medical institutions. The relationship between suffering patients and their caregivers provides evidence that compassion is a social emotion that is the closeness and cooperation between individuals.

Psychotherapy

Compassion-focused therapy, created by clinical psychologist Professor Paul Gilbert, focuses on the evolutionary psychology behind compassion: balancing of affect regulation systems (e.g. using affiliative emotions from the care-and-contentment system to soothe and reduce painful emotions from the threat-detection system).

Self-compassion

Self-compassion is being kind to oneself and accepting suffering as a quality of being human. It has positive effects on subjective happiness, optimism, wisdom, curiosity, agreeableness, and extroversion. Kristin Neff and Christopher Germer identified three levels of activities that thwart self-compassion: self-criticism, self-isolation, and self-absorption; they equate this to fight, flight, and freeze responses.{{multiref2

Authentic leadership centered on humanism and on nourishing quality interconnectedness increase compassion in the workplace to self and others.

Judith Jordan's concept of self-empathy is similar to self-compassion, it implies the capacity to notice, care, and respond towards one's own felt needs. Strategies of self-care involve valuing oneself, thinking about one's compassionately, and connecting with others in order renewal, support, and validation. Research indicates that self-compassionate individuals experience greater psychological health than those who lack self-compassion.{{multiref2

Religion and philosophy

Abrahamic religions

Christianity

The Christian Bible's Second Epistle to the Corinthians is but one place where God is spoken of as the "Father of mercies" (or "compassion") and the "God of all comfort."

Jesus embodies the essence of compassion and relational care. Christ challenges Christians to forsake their own desires and to act compassionately towards others, particularly those in need or distress.

One of his most well-known teachings about compassion is the Parable of the Good Samaritan (), in which a Samaritan traveler "was moved with compassion" at the sight of a man who was beaten. Jesus also demonstrated compassion to those his society had condemned—tax collectors, prostitutes, and criminals—by saying "just because you received a loaf of bread, does not mean you were more conscientious about it, or more caring about your fellow man". Here, as in Luke 15 and other places, the word ευσπλαχνία is used for a visceral emotion. Wycliff gives "entrails of mercy" and the King James Version's "bowels of mercy" seems the inspiration for Charles Wesley's hymn "Bowels of divine compassion".

An interpretation of the incarnation and crucifixion of Jesus is that it was undertaken from a compassionate desire to feel the suffering of and effect the salvation of mankind; this was also a compassionate sacrifice by God of his own son ("For God so loved the world, that he gave his only begotten Son...").

A 2012 study of the historical Jesus claimed that he sought to elevate Judaic compassion as the supreme human virtue, capable of reducing suffering and fulfilling the God-ordained purpose of transforming the world into something more worthy of its creator.

Islam

In the Muslim tradition, foremost among God's attributes are mercy and compassion, or, in the canonical language of Arabic, ar and ar. Each of the 114 chapters of the Quran, with one exception, begins with the verse, "In the name of Allah the Compassionate, the Merciful."

The Arabic word for compassion is ar. Its roots abound in the Quran. A good Muslim is to commence each day, each prayer, and each significant action by invoking Allah the Merciful and Compassionate, i.e., by reciting ar. The womb and family ties are characterized by compassion and named after the exalted attribute of Allah "ar" (The Compassionate).

Judaism

In the Jewish tradition, God is the Compassionate and is invoked as the Father of Compassion: hence he or Compassionate becomes the usual designation for His revealed word. (Compare, above, the frequent use of ar in the Quran). Sorrow and pity for one in distress, creating a desire to relieve it, is a feeling ascribed alike to man and God: in Biblical Hebrew, (he, from he, the mother, womb), "to pity" or "to show mercy" in view of the sufferer's helplessness, hence also "to forgive" (), "to forbear" (; ; ). The Rabbis speak of the "thirteen attributes of compassion". The Bible identifies compassion of a mother for her offspring as comparable, though inferior, to a prophet's trust in God being validated upon appeal ().

A classic articulation of the Golden Rule came from the first century Rabbi Hillel the Elder. Renowned in the Jewish tradition as a sage and a scholar, he is associated with the development of the Mishnah and the Talmud and, as such, is one of the most important figures in Jewish history. Asked for a summary of the Jewish religion "while standing on one leg" (meaning in the most concise terms) Hillel stated: "That which is hateful to you, do not do to your fellow. That is the whole Torah. The rest is the explanation; go and learn." Post 9/11, the words of Rabbi Hillel are frequently quoted in public lectures and interviews around the world by the prominent writer on comparative religion Karen Armstrong.

Many Jewish sources speak of the importance of compassion for and prohibitions on causing needless pain to animals. Significant rabbis who have done so include Rabbi Samson Raphael Hirsch, Rabbi Simhah Zissel Ziv, and Rabbi Moshe Cordovero.

Ancient Greek philosophy

In ancient Greek philosophy motivations based on grc (feeling, passion) were typically distrusted. Reason was generally considered to be the proper guide to conduct. Compassion was considered grc; hence, Justice is depicted as blindfolded, because her virtue is dispassion — not compassion.

Aristotle compared compassion with indignation and thought they were both worthy feelings: Compassion means being pained by another person's unearned misfortune; indignation means being pained by another's unearned good fortune. Both are an unhappy awareness of an unjust imbalance.

Stoicism had a doctrine of rational compassion known as grc.

In Roman society, compassion was often seen as a vice when it was expressed as pity rather than mercy. In other words, showing empathy toward someone who was seen as deserving was considered virtuous, whereas showing empathy to someone deemed unworthy was considered immoral and weak.

Confucianism

Mencius maintained that everyone possesses the germ or root of compassion, illustrating his case with the famous example of the child at an open well:

"Suppose a man were, all of a sudden, to see a young child on the verge of falling into a well. He would certainly be moved to compassion, not because he wanted to get into the good graces of the parents, nor because he wished to win the praise of his fellow-villagers or friends, nor yet because he disliked the cry of the child".

Mencius saw the task of moral cultivation as that of developing the initial impulse of compassion into an enduring quality of benevolence.

Indian religions

Buddhism

The first of the Four Noble Truths is the truth of suffering or pi (unsatisfactoriness or stress). pi is one of the three distinguishing characteristics of all conditioned existence. It arises as a consequence of not understanding the nature of impermanence pi (the second characteristic) as well as a lack of understanding that all phenomena are empty of self pi (the third characteristic).

When one has an understanding of suffering and its origins and understands that liberation from suffering is possible, renunciation arises. Renunciation then lays the foundation for the development of compassion for others who also suffer. This is developed in stages:

; Ordinary compassion: The compassion one has for those close to them such as friends and family and a wish to free them from the 'suffering of suffering' ; Immeasurable compassion: This is the compassion that wishes to benefit all beings without exception. It is associated with both the Hinayana and Mahayana paths.

1. Loving kindness (pi)
2. Compassion (pi)
3. Joy (pi)
4. Equanimity (pi)

The American monk Bhikkhu Bodhi states that compassion "supplies the complement to loving-kindness: whereas loving-kindness has the characteristic of wishing for the happiness and welfare of others, compassion has the characteristic of wishing that others be free from suffering, a wish to be extended without limits to all living beings. Like pi, compassion arises by considering that all beings, like ourselves, wish to be free from suffering, yet despite their wishes continue to be harassed by pain, fear, sorrow, and other forms of pi."}}

; Great Compassion: This is practiced exclusively in the Mahayana tradition and is associated with the development of Bodhicitta. The Bodhisattva Vow begins (in one version): "Suffering beings are numberless, I vow to liberate them all."

The 14th Dalai Lama has said, "If you want others to be happy, practice compassion. If you want to be happy, practice compassion." But he also warned that compassion is difficult to develop:

Hinduism

Main article: Karuṇā

In classical literature of Hinduism, compassion is a virtue with many shades, each shade explained by different terms. Three most common terms are sa (दया), sa (करुणा), and sa (अनुकम्पा). Other words related to compassion in Hinduism include sa, sa, and sa. Some of these words are used interchangeably among the schools of Hinduism to explain the concept of compassion, its sources, its consequences, and its nature. The virtue of compassion to all living beings, claims Gandhi and others, is a central concept in Hindu philosophy.

sa is defined by Padma Purana as the virtuous desire to mitigate the sorrow and difficulties of others by putting forth whatever effort necessary. Matsya Purana describes sa as the value that treats all living beings (including human beings) as one's own self, wanting the welfare and good of the other living being. Such compassion, claims Matsya Purana, is one of necessary paths to being happy. Ekadashi Tattvam explains sa is treating a stranger, a relative, a friend, and a foe as one's own self; and argues that compassion is that state when one sees all living beings as part of one's own self, and when everyone's suffering is seen as one's own suffering. Compassion to all living beings, including to those who are strangers and those who are foes, is seen as a noble virtue.

sa, another word for compassion in Hindu philosophy, means placing one's mind in other's favor, thereby seeking to understand the best way to help alleviate their suffering through an act of sa (compassion). sa, yet another word for compassion, refers to one's state after one has observed and understood the pain and suffering in others.{{multiref2

In Mahabharata, Indra praises Yudhishthira for his sa – compassion, sympathy – for all creatures. Tulsidas contrasts sa (compassion) with sa (arrogance, contempt of others), claiming compassion is a source of dharmic life, while arrogance a source of sin. sa (compassion) is not sa (pity) in Hinduism, or feeling sorry for the sufferer, because that is marred with condescension; compassion is recognizing one's own and another's suffering in order to actively alleviate that suffering. Compassion is the basis for sa, a core virtue in Hindu philosophy and an article of everyday faith and practice.{{multiref2

Compassion in Hinduism is discussed as an absolute and a relative concept. There are two forms of compassion: one for those who suffer even though they have done nothing wrong and one for those who suffer because they did something wrong. Absolute compassion applies to both, while relative compassion addresses the difference between the former and the latter. An example of the latter include those who plead guilty or are convicted of a crime such as murder; in these cases, the virtue of compassion must be balanced with the virtue of justice.

The classical literature of Hinduism exists in many Indian languages. For example, Tirukkuṛaḷ, written between and , and sometimes called the Tamil Veda, is a cherished classic on Hinduism written in a South Indian language. It dedicates Chapter 25 of Book 1 to compassion, further dedicating separate chapters each for the resulting values of compassion, chiefly, vegetarianism or veganism (Chapter 26), doing no harm (Chapter 32), non-killing (Chapter 33), possession of kindness (Chapter 8), dreading evil deeds (Chapter 21), benignity (Chapter 58), the right scepter (Chapter 55), and absence of terrorism (Chapter 57), to name a few.

Jainism

Compassion for all life is central to the Jain tradition. Though all life is considered sacred, human life is deemed the highest form of earthly existence. To kill any person, no matter their crime, is considered abhorrent. It is the only substantial religious tradition that requires both monks and laity to be vegetarian. It is suggested that certain strains of the Hindu tradition became vegetarian due to strong Jain influences.{{multiref2

References

References

1. (2009). "Encyclopedia of Positive Psychology". Wiley-Blackwell.
2. (2015). "Ethics, Integrity and Aptitude". McGraw-Hill Education.
3. (July 2016). "What is compassion and how can we measure it? A review of definitions and measures". Clinical Psychology Review.
4. (June 1987). "Emotion knowledge: further exploration of a prototype approach". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology.
5. (1993). "Emotional Contagion". Current Directions in Psychological Science.
6. (9 September 2015). "Compassion is Natural. So Why Is It So Hard for Us?".
7. "Science of Compassion".
8. Seppala, Emma. (30 April 2013). "The Compassionate Mind". APS Observer.
9. Cassell, Eric. (2009). "Oxford Handbook of Positive Psychology". Oxford University Press.
10. (2022). "Family Alliance in Infancy and Toddlerhood Predicts Social Cognition in Adolescence". Journal of Child & Family Studies.
11. Cassell, Eric. (1995). "The Healer's Art". MIT Press.
12. Brown, Lee. (1 January 1996). "Compassion and Societal Well-Being". Pacific Philosophical Quarterly.
13. (January 2021). "The Relationship Among the Components of Self-compassion: A Pilot Study Using a Compassionate Writing Intervention to Enhance Self-kindness, Common Humanity, and Mindfulness". Journal of Happiness Studies.
14. (2019-09-14). "From Bondage to Liberation: The Forgiveness Case of Holocaust Survivor Eva Mozes Kor". Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment & Trauma.
15. (December 2021). "Group-based shame, guilt, and regret across cultures". European Journal of Social Psychology.
16. Nagel, Thomas. (2 November 2013). "You Can't Learn About Morality from Brain Scans: The problem with moral psychology".
17. Stuart, Matthew. (2013-07-18). "Agency: The Revised Account". Oxford University Press.
18. Heim, M.. (2003-09-01). "The Aesthetics of Excess". Journal of the American Academy of Religion.
19. (25 July 2012). "Enhancing Compassion: A Randomized Controlled Trial of a Compassion Cultivation Training Program". Journal of Happiness Studies.
20. Gilbert, Paul. (2010). "The Compassionate Mind: A New Approach to Life's Challenges". New Harbinger Publications.
21. Gilbert, Paul. (21 February 2014). "The origins and nature of compassion focused therapy". British Journal of Clinical Psychology.
22. "Paul Ekman's Taxonomy of Compassion".
23. (8 April 2016). "How to Cultivate Global Compassion".
24. (1 February 2014). "A randomized controlled trial of compassion cultivation training: Effects on mindfulness, affect, and emotion regulation". Motivation and Emotion.
25. Decety, J., & Cowell, J. M. (2015). Empathy, justice and moral behavior. American Journal of Bioethics – Neuroscience, 6(3), 3–14.
26. Ricard, Matthieu. (2015). "Altruism: The Power of Compassion to Change Yourself and the World". Brown and Company.
27. (October 2012). "Concept Analysis". Critical Care Nursing Quarterly.
28. (2021). "The Relationship Among the Components of Self-compassion: A Pilot Study Using a Compassionate Writing Intervention to Enhance Self-kindness, Common Humanity, and Mindfulness". Journal of Happiness Studies.
29. Smith, Patrica. (2020). "What is compassion fatigue?".
30. (2014). "Differential pattern of functional brain plasticity after compassion and empathy training". Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience.
31. Hernandez-Wolfe, Pilar. (October 2018). "Vicarious Resilience: A Comprehensive Review". Revista de Estudios Sociales.
32. (2018). "The Rubber Brain". Australian Academic Press.
33. (March 2019). "Helping one or helping many? A theoretical integration and meta-analytic review of the compassion fade literature". Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes.
34. (2018). "The elusive power of the individual victim: Failure to find a difference in the effectiveness of charitable appeals focused on one compared to many victims". PLOS ONE.
35. (1997). "Insensitivity to the Value of Human Life: A Study of Psychophysical Numbing". Journal of Risk and Uncertainty.
36. (20 December 2019). "Empathy and compassion toward other species decrease with evolutionary divergence time". Springer Science and Business Media LLC.
37. Cameron, Harris, & Payne, in prep{{Full citation needed. (July 2023)
38. Svoboda, Elizabeth. (5 September 2013). "Scientists Are Finding That We Are Hard-Wired for Giving". University of Notre Dame.
39. (May 2009). "Neural correlates of admiration and compassion". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A..
40. (August 2009). "Compassionate attitude towards others' suffering activates the mesolimbic neural system.". Neuropsychologia.
41. (1981). "Principles of Medical Ethics". American Medical Association.
42. Cassell, Eric. (1985). "The Nature of Suffering". Oxford University Press.
43. (5 December 2020). "Compassion-Focused Therapy (CFT)". PubPub.
44. Gilbert, Paul,"The Compassionate Mind (Compassion Focused Therapy)"{{full citation needed. (July 2023)
45. (2007). "An examination of self-compassion in relation to positive psychological functioning and personality traits". Journal of Research in Psychology.
46. Neff, Kristin D.. (June 2009). "The Role of Self-Compassion in Development: A Healthier Way to Relate to Oneself". Hum. Dev..
47. Peus, Claudia. (15 April 2011). "Money over man versus caring and compassion? Challenges for today's organizations and their leaders". Journal of Organizational Behavior.
48. "οἰκτιρμός (oiktirmos)".
49. {{Bibleverse. 2 Corinthians. 1:3–4. NASB1995
50. {{Bibleverse. Galatians. 6:2
51. {{Bibleverse. Ephesians. 4:32. NASB1995
52. Drake-Brockman, Tom. (2012). "Christian Humanism: the compassionate theology of a Jew called Jesus". Denis Jones and associates.
53. c.f. other versions of [https://www.biblegateway.com/verse/en/Colossians%203%3A12 Colossians 3:12]. [https://expositorysongs.com/lyrics/bowels-of-divine-compassion-charles-wesley/ Wesley's hymn] apparently awaits being added to wikisource.
54. {{Bibleverse. John. 3:16
55. "University of Southern California". Usc.edu.
56. Jeffrey, Isobel. (2007-02-04). "The Contemporary Influences of Muhyiddin Ibn 'Arabi in the West: The Beshara School and the Muhyiddin Ibn 'Arabi Society". Comparative Islamic Studies.
57. Lampert, Khen. (2006). "Traditions of Compassion: From Religious Duty to Social Activism". Palgrave Macmillan.
58. "Compassion".
59. [[Talmud. Babylonian Talmud]], tractate Shabbat 31a. See also the [[ethic of reciprocity]] or "The [[Golden rule]]."
60. "Imitation of Divine Compassion in the Jewish Tradition: Jewish Vegetarian – Vegan Articles From All-Creatures.org Articles Archive".
61. Claussen, Geoffrey. (2019-01-01). "Musar and Jewish Veganism". Jewish Veganism and Vegetarianism: Studies and New Directions.
62. "JewishVeg: Rav Moshe Cordoero on Compassion for Animals".
63. Szasz, Thomas. (1998). "Cruel Compassion: Psychiatric Control of Society's Unwanted". Syracuse University Press.
64. Aristotle. "Rhetoric".
65. Dunkle, Roger. (2008). "Gladiators: Violence and Spectacle in Ancient Rome". Routledge.
66. (1970). "Mencius". Penguin.
67. Berzin, Alexander. "Renunciation: The Determination to Be Free".
68. Berzin, Alexander. "Going from Renunciation to Compassion".
69. (4 June 2017). "The three types of suffering".
70. Berzin, Alexander. "The Four Immeasurables in Hinayana, Mahayana and Bon".
71. Bhikkhu Bodhi. (1994). "The Noble Eightfold Path: Way to the End of Suffering". Buddhist Publication Society.
72. Dalai Lama, The. (7 July 2017). "Developing the Mind of Great Capacity – The Dalai Lama – Lion's Roar".
73. Rhodes, Robert F.. (1984). "The four extensive vows and four noble truths in T'ien-t'ai Buddhism". Annual Memoirs of the Otani University Shin Buddhist Comprehensive Research Institute.
74. "Twitter – Dalai Lama". Twitter.
75. Tenzin Gyatzo. (1999). "Ethics for the New Millennium". Riverhead Books.
76. Klostermaier, Klaus K.. (1989). "A Survey of Hinduism". State University of New York Press.
77. Martin, Nancy. (2010). "Brill's Encyclopedia of Hinduism". Brill.
78. "dayA".
79. "karuNA".
80. "AnukampA in Sanskrit English Dictionary, Spoken Sanskrit, Germany (2011)".
81. "Apte English-Sanskrit Dictionary 1884 Basic".
82. Gandhi, M.K.. (1995). "Hindu Dharma". Orient Paperbacks.
83. (2010). "Conceptualizations of forgiveness and forgivingness among Hindus". The International Journal for the Psychology of Religion.
84. Ekadashi Tattvam. (1816). "[[Raghunandana Bhattacharya]]". Smriti.
85. (2009). "Compassion in the World's Religions: Envisioning Human Solidarity". LIT Verlag.
86. Doniger, Wendy. (2010). "The Hindus: An Alternative History". Oxford University Press, USA.
87. Paramtattva Swami, Pujya. "Catholics and Hindus: The Practice of Compassion as a Contribution to Peace".
88. "Tirukkuṛaḷ".
89. Pope, George Uglow. (2023). "The Sacred Kurral of Tiruvalluva Nayanar". Asian Educational Services.