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Brahmic scripts

Family of abugida writing systems

Family of abugida writing systems

The Brahmic scripts, also known as Indic scripts, are a family of abugida writing systems. They are descended from the Brahmi script of ancient India and are used by various languages in several language families in South, East and Southeast Asia: Indo-Aryan, Dravidian, Tibeto-Burman, Mongolic, Austroasiatic, Austronesian, and Tai. They were also the source of the dictionary order (gojūon) of Japanese kana.

History

Brahmic scripts descended from the Brahmi script. Brahmi is clearly attested from the 3rd century BCE during the reign of Ashoka, who used the script for imperial edicts. Northern Brahmi gave rise to the Gupta script during the Gupta period, which in turn diversified into a number of cursives during the medieval period. Notable examples of such medieval scripts, developed by the 7th or 8th century, include Nagari, Siddham and Sharada.

The Siddhaṃ script was especially important in Buddhism, as many sutras were written in it. The art of Siddham calligraphy survives today in Japan. The tabular presentation and dictionary order of the modern kana system of Japanese writing is believed to be descended from the Indic scripts, most likely through the spread of Buddhism.

Southern Brahmi evolved into the Kadamba, Pallava and Vatteluttu scripts, which in turn diversified into other scripts of South India and Southeast Asia. Brahmic scripts spread in a peaceful manner, Indianization, or the spread of Indian learning. The scripts spread naturally to Southeast Asia, at ports on trading routes. At these trading posts, ancient inscriptions have been found in Sanskrit, using scripts that originated in India. At first, inscriptions were made in Indian languages, but later the scripts were used to write the local Southeast Asian languages. Hereafter, local varieties of the scripts were developed. By the 8th century, the scripts had diverged and separated into regional scripts.

Image:Asokan brahmi pillar edict.jpg|A fragment of Ashoka's 6th pillar edict, in Brahmi, the ancestor of all Brahmic scripts File:Brahmic script travel from India.png|Spread of Brahmic family of scripts (and Kharosthi) from the subcontinent.

Characteristics

Some characteristics, which are present in most but not all the scripts, are:

  • Each consonant has an inherent vowel which is usually a short ‘ə’ (in Bengali, Assamese and Odia, the phoneme is /ɔ/ due to sound shifts). Other vowels are written by adding to the character. A mark, known in Sanskrit as a virama/halanta/hasanta, can be used to indicate the absence of an inherent vowel, although it is rarely used.
  • Each vowel has two forms, an independent form when not attached to a consonant, and a dependent form, when attached to a consonant. Depending on the script, the dependent forms can be either placed to the left of, to the right of, above, below, or on both the left and the right sides of the base consonant.
  • Consonants (up to 4 in Devanagari) can be combined in ligatures. Special marks are added to denote the combination of 'r' with another consonant.
  • Nasalization and aspiration of a consonant's dependent vowel is also noted by separate signs.
  • The alphabetical order is: vowels, velar consonants, palatal consonants, retroflex consonants, dental consonants, bilabial consonants, approximants, sibilants, and other consonants. Each consonant grouping had four stops (with all four possible values of voicing and aspiration), and a nasal consonant.

Comparison

Below are comparison charts of several of the major Indic scripts, organised on the principle that glyphs in the same column all derive from the same Brahmi glyph. Accordingly:

  • The charts are not comprehensive. Glyphs may be unrepresented if they are later inventions not derived from any Brahmi character.
  • The pronunciations of glyphs in the same column may not be identical. The pronunciation row is only representative; the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) pronunciation is given for Sanskrit where possible, or another language if necessary. The transliteration is indicated in ISO 15919.

Consonants

ISOkakhagaghaṅacachajajhañaṭaṭhaḍaḍhaṇatathadadhanaṉapapha/fababhamayaẏaraṟalaḷaḻavaśaṣasahakṣaṯaAshoka BrahmiDevanagariBengali-
AssameseSharadaGurmukhiGujaratiOdiaGranthaTamilTeluguKannadaMalayalamSinhalaTibetanʼPhags-paMeitei MayekLepchaLimbuTirhutaKaithiNewa PrachalitSylheti NagariChakmaBurmeseTai ThamNew Tai LueKhmerThaiLaoChamKawiBalineseJavaneseSundaneseLontaraMakasarRejangBatak (Toba)BaybayinBuhidHanunuoTagbanwaISOkakhagaghaṅacachajajhañaṭaṭhaḍaḍhaṇatathadadhanaṉapaphababhamayaẏaraṟalaḷaḻavaśaṣasahakṣaṯa
𑀓𑀔𑀕𑀖𑀗𑀘𑀙𑀚𑀛𑀜𑀝𑀞𑀟𑀠𑀡𑀢𑀣𑀤𑀥𑀦𑀧𑀨𑀩𑀪𑀫𑀬𑀭𑀮𑀴𑀯𑀰𑀱𑀲𑀳
कखगघङचछजझञटठडढणतथदधनऩपफबभमयय़रऱलळऴवशषसहक्ष
কখগঘঙচছজঝঞটঠডঢণতথদধনপফবভমযয়র,ৰলৱশষসহক্ষ
𑆑𑆒𑆓𑆔𑆕𑆖𑆗𑆘𑆙𑆚𑆛𑆜𑆝𑆞𑆟𑆠𑆡𑆢𑆣𑆤𑆤𑇊𑆥𑆦𑆧𑆨𑆩𑆪𑆪𑇊𑆫𑆫𑇊𑆬𑆭𑆭𑇊𑆮𑆯𑆰𑆱𑆲𑆑𑇀𑆰
ਕਖਗਘਙਚਛਜਝਞਟਠਡਢਣਤਥਦਧਨਪਫਬਭਮਯਰਲਲ਼ਵਸ਼ਸਹ
કખગઘઙચછજઝઞટઠડઢણતથદધનપફબભમયરલળવશષસહક્ષ
କଖଗଘଙଚଛଜଝଞଟଠଡଢଣତଥଦଧନପଫବଭମଯୟରଲଳୱଶଷସହକ୍ଷ
கஙசஜஞடணதநனபமயரறலளழவஶஷஸஹக்ஷ
కఖగఘఙచఛజఝఞటఠడఢణతథదధనన఼పఫబభమయయ఼రఱలళఴవశషసహక్ష
ಕಖಗಘಙಚಛಜಝಞಟಠಡಢಣತಥದಧನನ಼ಪಫಬಭಮಯಯ಼ರಱಲಳೞವಶಷಸಹಕ್ಷ
കഖഗഘങചഛജഝഞടഠഡഢണതഥദധനഩപഫബഭമയരറലളഴവശഷസഹക്ഷഺ
කඛගඝඞචඡජඣඤටඨඩඪණතථදධනපඵබභමයරලළවශෂසහක්‍ෂ
ཀཁགགྷངཅཆཇཛྷཉཊཋཌཌྷཎཏཐདདྷནཔཕབབྷམཡརཬལཝཤཥསཧ
ꯔꯂ
ᰀᰂᰃᰅᰆᰇᰈᰉᱍᱎᱏᰊᰋᰌᰍᰎᰐᰓᰕᰚᰛᰜᰟᰡᰡ᰷ᰠᰝ
ᤁᤂᤃᤄᤅᤆᤇᤈᤉᤊᤋᤌᤍᤎᤏᤐᤑᤒᤓᤔᤕᤖᤗᤘᤙᤚᤛᤜ
𑒏𑒐𑒑𑒒𑒓𑒔𑒕𑒖𑒗𑒘𑒙𑒚𑒛𑒜𑒝𑒞𑒟𑒠𑒡𑒢𑒣𑒤𑒥𑒦𑒧𑒨𑒩𑒪𑒬𑒭𑒮𑒯
𑂍𑂎𑂏𑂐𑂑𑂒𑂓𑂔𑂕𑂖𑂗𑂘𑂙𑂛𑂝𑂞𑂟𑂠𑂡𑂢𑂣𑂤𑂥𑂦𑂧𑂨𑂩𑂪𑂫𑂬𑂭𑂮𑂯
𑐎𑐏𑐐𑐑𑐒𑐔𑐕𑐖𑐗𑐘𑐚𑐛𑐜𑐝𑐞𑐟𑐠𑐡𑐢𑐣𑐣𑑆𑐥𑐦𑐧𑐨𑐩𑐫𑐫𑑆𑐬𑐬𑑆𑐮𑐮𑑆𑐲𑑆𑐰𑐱𑐲𑐳𑐴𑐎𑑂𑐲
𑄇𑄈𑄉𑄊𑄋𑄌𑄍𑄎𑄏𑄐𑄑𑄒𑄓𑄔𑄕𑄖𑄗𑄘𑄙𑄚𑄛𑄜𑄝𑄞𑄟𑄠𑄡𑄢𑄣𑅄𑄤𑄥𑄦
ကခဂဃငစဆဇဈဉ / ညဋဌဍဎဏတထဒဓနပဖဗဘမယရလဠဝၐၑသဟ
ᨠᨡ,ᨢᨣ,ᨤᨥᨦᨧᨨᨩ,ᨪᨫᨬᨭᨮᨯᨰᨱᨲᨳᨴᨵᨶᨷ,ᨸᨹ,ᨺᨻ,ᨼᨽᨾᨿ,ᩀᩁᩃᩊᩅᩆᩇᩈᩉ,ᩌ
ᦂᦃᦅ,ᦆᦇᦈᦋ,ᦌᦡ,ᦤᦎᦏᦑᦒᦓᦢ,ᦥ,ᦔᦕ,ᦚᦗ,ᦝᦘᦙᦍ,ᦊᦣᦟᦞᦉᦠ
กข,(ฃ)ค,(ฅ)ฆงจฉช,(ซ)ฌญฎ,(ฏ)ฐฑฒณด,(ต)ถทธนป,(บ)ผ,(ฝ)พ,(ฟ)ภมยรลฬวศษสห,ฮ
ກຂຄຆງຈຉຊຌຎຏຐຑຒຓດ,ຕຖທຘນບ,ປຜ,ຝພ,ຟຠມຍຣລຬວຨຩສຫ
ꨆꨇꨈꨉꨋꨌꨍꨎꨏꨑꨓꨔꨕꨖꨘꨚꨜꨝꨞꨠꨢꨣꨤꨥꨦꨧꨨ
/
/
ᝃᝄᝅᝆᝇᝈᝉᝊᝋᝌᝍᝎᝏᝐᝑ
ᜣᜤᜥᜦᜧᜨᜩᜪᜫᜬᜭᜮᜯᜰᜱ

;Notes

Vowels

Vowels are presented in their independent form on the left of each column, and in their corresponding dependent form (vowel sign) combined with the consonant k on the right. A glyph for ka is an independent consonant letter itself without any vowel sign, where the vowel a is inherent.

ISOaāêôiīuūeēaioōauər̥r̥̄l̥l̥̄ṁḥakaākāêkêôkôikiīkīukuūkūekeēkēaikaiokoōkōaukauəkər̥kr̥r̥̄kr̥̄l̥kl̥l̥̄kl̥̄aṁkaṁaḥkaḥkkŭAshoka BrahmiDevanagariBengali-
AssameseGujaratiOdiaGurmukhiMeitei MayekTibetanLepchaLimbuTirhutaKaithiNewa PrachalitSylheti NagariTamilKannadaTeluguSinhalaMalayalamChakmaBurmeseTai ThamNew Tai LueKhmerThaiLaoChamKawiBalineseJavaneseSundaneseLontaraMakasarRejangBatak (Toba)BaybayinBuhidHanunuoTagbanwaISOakaākāêkêôkôikiīkīukuūkūekeēkēaikaiokoōkōaukauəkər̥kr̥r̥̄kr̥̄l̥kl̥l̥̄kl̥̄aṁkaṁaḥkaḥkkŭaāêôiīuūeēaioōauər̥r̥̄l̥l̥̄ṁḥ
𑀅𑀓𑀆𑀓𑀸𑀇𑀓𑀺𑀈𑀓𑀻𑀉𑀓𑀼𑀊𑀓𑀽𑀏𑀓𑁂𑀐𑀓𑁃𑀑𑀓𑁄𑀒𑀓𑁅𑀋𑀓𑀾𑀌𑀓𑀿𑀍𑀓𑁀𑀎𑀓𑁁𑀅𑀁𑀓𑀁𑀅𑀂𑀓𑀂𑀓𑁆
अकआकाॲकॅऑकॉइकिईकीउकुऊकूऎकॆएकेऐकैऒकॊओकोऔकौऋकृॠकॄऌकॢॡकॣअंकंअःकःक्
অকআকাঅ্যাক্যাইকিঈকীউকুঊকূএকেঐকৈওকোঔকৌঋকৃৠকৄঌকৢৡকৣঅংকংঅঃকঃক্
અકઆકાઍકૅઑકૉઇકિઈકીઉકુઊકૂએકેઐકૈઓકોઔકૌઋકૃૠકૄઌકૢૡકૣઅંકંઅઃકઃક્,ક્‍
ଅକଆକାଇକିଈକୀଉକୁଊକୂଏକେଐକୈଓକୋଔକୌଋକୃୠକୄଌକୢୡକୣଅଂକଂଅଃକଃକ୍
ਅਕਆਕਾਇਕਿਈਕੀਉਕੁਊਕੂਏਕੇਐਕੈਓਕੋਔਕੌਅਂਕਂਅਃਕਃਕ੍
ꯑꯀꯑꯥꯀꯥꯏꯀꯤꯎꯀꯨꯑꯦꯀꯦꯑꯩꯀꯩꯑꯣꯀꯣꯑꯧꯀꯧꯑꯪꯀꯪꯛ
ཨཀཨཱཀཱཨིཀིཨཱིཀཱིཨུཀུཨཱུཀཱུཨེཀེཨཻཀཻཨོཀོཨཽཀཽརྀཀྲྀརཱྀཀཷལྀཀླྀལཱྀཀླཱྀཨཾཀཾཨཿཀཿཀ྄
ᰣᰀᰣᰦᰀᰦᰣᰧᰀᰧᰣᰧᰶᰀᰧᰶᰣᰪᰀᰪᰣᰫᰀᰫᰣᰬᰀᰬᰣᰨᰀᰨᰣᰩᰀᰩᰣᰴᰀᰴ
ᤀᤁᤀᤠᤁᤠᤀᤡᤁᤡᤀᤡ᤺ᤁᤡ᤺ᤀᤢᤁᤢᤀᤢ᤺ᤁᤢ᤺ᤀᤧᤁᤧᤀᤣᤁᤣᤀᤤᤁᤤᤀᤨᤁᤨᤀᤥᤁᤥᤀᤦᤁᤦᤀᤲᤁᤲᤁ᤻
𑒁𑒏𑒂𑒏𑒰𑒃𑒏𑒱𑒄𑒏𑒲𑒅𑒏𑒳𑒆𑒏𑒴𑒏𑒺𑒋𑒏𑒹𑒌𑒏𑒻𑒏𑒽𑒍𑒏𑒼𑒎𑒏𑒾𑒇𑒏𑒵𑒈𑒏𑒶𑒉𑒏𑒷𑒊𑒏𑒸𑒁𑓀𑒏𑓀𑒁𑓁𑒏𑓁𑒏𑓂
𑂃𑂍𑂄𑂍𑂰𑂅𑂍𑂱𑂆𑂍𑂲𑂇𑂍𑂳𑂈𑂍𑂴𑂉𑂍𑂵𑂊𑂍𑂶𑂋𑂍𑂷𑂌𑂍𑂸𑂃𑂁𑂍𑂁𑂃𑂂𑂍𑂂𑂍𑂹
𑐀𑐎𑐁𑐎𑐵𑐂𑐎𑐶𑐃𑐎𑐷𑐄𑐎𑐸𑐅𑐎𑐹𑐊𑐎𑐾𑐋𑐎𑐿𑐌𑐎𑑀𑐍𑐎𑑁𑐆𑐎𑐺𑐇𑐎𑐻𑐈𑐎𑐼𑐉𑐎𑐽𑐀𑑄𑐎𑑄𑐀𑑅𑐎𑑅𑐎𑑂
அகஆகாஇகிஈகீஉகுஊகூஎகெஏகேஐகைஒகொஓகோஔகௌஅஂகஂஅஃகஃக்
ಅಕಆಕಾಇಕಿಈಕೀಉಕುಊಕೂಎಕೆಏಕೇಐಕೈಒಕೊಓಕೋಔಕೌಋಕೃೠಕೄಌಕೢೡಕೣఅంಕಂఅఃಕಃಕ್
అకఆకాఇకిఈకీఉకుఊకూఎకెఏకేఐకైఒకొఓకోఔకౌఋకృౠకౄఌకౢౡకౣఅంకంఅఃకఃక్
අකආකාඇකැඈකෑඉකිඊකීඋකුඌකූඑකෙඒකේඓකෛඔකොඕකෝඖකෞඍකෘඎකෲඏකෟඐකෳඅංකංඅඃකඃක්
അകആകാഇകിഈകീഉകുഊകൂഎകെഏകേഐകൈഒകൊഓകോഔകൗഋകൃൠകൄഌകൢൡകൣഅംകംഅഃകഃക്ക്
𑄃𑄧𑄇𑄧𑄃𑄇𑄃𑄬𑄬𑄇𑄬𑄬𑄃𑅅𑄇𑅅𑄄, 𑄃𑄨𑄇𑄨𑄃𑄩𑄇𑄩𑄅, 𑄃𑄪𑄇𑄪𑄃𑄫𑄇𑄫𑄆, 𑄃𑄬𑄇𑄬𑄃𑄰𑄇𑄰𑄃𑄮𑄇𑄮𑄃𑄯𑄇𑄯𑄃𑄧𑄁𑄇𑄧𑄁𑄃𑄧𑄂𑄇𑄧𑄂𑄇𑄴
အကအာကာဣကိဤကီဥကုဦကူဧကေအဲကဲဩကောအောင်ကောင်ၒကၖၓကၗၔကၘၕကၙအံကံအးကးက်
ᩋᨠᩋᩣᨠᩣ/ᨠᩤᩋᩯᨠᩯ(ᩋᩬᩴ,ᩋᩳ)(ᨠᩬᩴ,ᨠᩳ)ᩍᨠᩥᩎᨠᩦᩏᨠᩩᩐᨠᩪ(ᩋᩮᩡ)(ᨠᩮᩡ)ᩑᨠᩮᩋᩱᨠᩱ(ᩋᩰᩡ)(ᨠᩰᩡ)ᩒ,ᩋᩰᨠᩰ,ᨠᩮᩣᩋᩮᩢᩣ,ᩋᩯᩣ,ᩐᩣᨠᩮᩢᩣ,ᨠᩮᩫᩣ,ᨠᩯᩣᩁᩂᨠᩂᩋᩴᨠᩴᩋᩡᨠᩡᨠ᩺,ᨠ᩼
ᦀᦂᦀᦱᦂᦱᦶᦀᦶᦂ(ᦀᦸ)(ᦂᦸ)ᦀᦲᦰᦂᦲᦰᦀᦲᦂᦲᦀᦳᦂᦳᦀᦴᦂᦴ(ᦵᦀᦰ)(ᦵᦂᦰ)ᦵᦀᦵᦂᦺᦀᦺᦂ(ᦷᦀᦰ)(ᦷᦂᦰ)ᦷᦀᦷᦂᦀᧁᦂᧁᦀᦰᦂᦰᧅ
អកអាកាឥកិឦកីឧកុឩកូឯកេឰកៃឱកោឳកៅឫក្ឫឬក្ឬឭក្ឭឮក្ឮអំកំអះកះក៑
อ (อะ)ก (กะ)อากาแอแก(ออ)(กอ)อิกิอีกีอุกุอูกู(เอะ)(เกะ)เอเกไอ,ใอไก,ใก(โอะ)(โกะ)โอโกเอาเกาฤกฺฤฤๅกฺฤๅฦกฺฦฦๅกฺฦๅอํกํอะ (อะฮฺ)กะ (กะฮฺ)กฺ (ก/ก์)
ອະກະອາກາແອແກ(ອອ)(ກອ)ອິກິອີກີອຸກຸອູກູ(ແອະ)(ແກະ)ເອເກໄອ,ໃອໄກ,ໃກ(ໂອະ)(ໂກະ)ໂອໂກເອົາ,ອາວເກົາ,ກາວອํກํອະກະກ
ꨀꨆꨀꨩꨆꨩꨁꨆꨪꨁꨩꨆꨫꨂꨆꨭꨂꨩꨆꨭꨩꨃꨆꨯꨮꨄꨆꨰꨅꨆꨯꨀꨯꨱꨆꨯꨱꨣꨮꨆꨴꨮꨣꨮꨩꨆꨴꨮꨩꨤꨮꨆꨵꨮꨤꨮꨩꨆꨵꨮꨩꨀꩌꨆꩌꨀꩍꨆꩍꩀ
ᝀᝃᝁᝃᝒᝂᝃᝓ
ᜠᜣᜡᜣᜲᜢᜣᜳᜣ᜴

Notes

Numerals

Hindu-Arabic0123456789Brahmi numbersBrahmi digitsBengali- AssameseTirhutaOdiaDevanagariGujaratiModiSharadaTakriGurmukhiKhudabadiMeitei (Manipuri)PracalitTibetanMongolianLepchaLimbuSinhala astrological numbersSinhala archaic numbersTamilTeluguKannadaMalayalamSaurashtraAhomChakmaBurmeseTai Tham Astrological NumbersNew Tai LueShanKhmerThaiLaoTai ThamChamBalineseJavaneseSundaneseHindu-Arabic0123456789
𑁒𑁓𑁔𑁕𑁖𑁗𑁘𑁙𑁚
𑁦𑁧𑁨𑁩𑁪𑁫𑁬𑁭𑁮𑁯
০১২৩৪৫৬৭৮৯
𑓐𑓑𑓒𑓓𑓔𑓕𑓖𑓗𑓘𑓙
୦୧୨୩୪୫୬୭୮୯
०१२३४५६७८९
૦૧૨૩૪૫૬૭૮૯
𑙐‎𑙑‎𑙒𑙓‎𑙔‎𑙕𑙖‎𑙗𑙘‎𑙙
𑇐𑇑𑇒𑇓𑇔𑇕𑇖𑇗𑇘𑇙
𑛀𑛁𑛂𑛃𑛄𑛅𑛆𑛇𑛈𑛉
੦੧੨੩੪੫੬੭੮੯
𑋰𑋱𑋲𑋳𑋴𑋵𑋶𑋷𑋸𑋹
꯰꯱꯲꯳꯴꯵꯶꯷꯸꯹
𑑐‎𑑑‎𑑒‎𑑓‎𑑔‎𑑕‎𑑖‎𑑗‎𑑘‎𑑙
༠༡༢༣༤༥༦༧༨༩
᠐᠑᠒᠓᠔᠕᠖᠗᠘᠙
᱀᱁᱂᱃᱄᱅᱆᱇᱈᱉
᥆᥇᥈᥉᥊᥋᥌᥍᥎᥏
෦෧෨෩෪෫෬෭෮෯
𑇡𑇢𑇣𑇤𑇥𑇦𑇧𑇨𑇩
೦௧௨௩௪௫௬௭௮௯
౦౧౨౩౪౫౬౭౮౯
೦೧೨೩೪೫೬೭೮೯
൦൧൨൩൪൫൬൭൮൯
꣐꣑꣒꣓꣔꣕꣖꣗꣘꣙
𑜰𑜱𑜲𑜳𑜴𑜵𑜶𑜷𑜸𑜹
𑄶𑄷𑄸𑄹𑄺𑄻𑄼𑄽𑄾𑄿
၀၁၂၃၄၅၆၇၈၉
᪀᪁᪂᪃᪄᪅᪆᪇᪈᪉
᧐᧑᧒᧓᧔᧕᧖᧗᧘᧙
႐႑႒႓႔႕႖႗႘႙
០១២៣៤៥៦៧៨៩
๐๑๒๓๔๕๖๗๘๙
໐໑໒໓໔໕໖໗໘໙
᪐᪑᪒᪓᪔᪕᪖᪗᪘᪙
꩐꩑꩒꩓꩔꩕꩖꩗꩘꩙
᭐᭑᭒᭓᭔᭕᭖᭗᭘᭙
꧐꧑꧒꧓꧔꧕꧖꧗꧘꧙
᮰᮱᮲᮳᮴᮵᮶᮷᮸᮹

Notes

List of Brahmic scripts

Historical

The Brahmi script was already divided into regional variants at the time of the earliest surviving epigraphy around the 3rd century BC. Cursives of the Brahmi script began to diversify further from around the 5th century AD and continued to give rise to new scripts throughout the Middle Ages. The main division in antiquity was between northern and southern Brahmi. In the northern group, the Gupta script was very influential, and in the southern group the Vatteluttu and Kadamba/Pallava scripts with the spread of Buddhism sent Brahmic scripts throughout Southeast Asia.

IASTAshokaGirnarChandra­guptaGujaratPrayagrajNarbadaKistna
[[File:Brahmi_a.svg24px]][[File:Gupta_girnar_a.svg24px]][[File:Gupta_ashoka_a.svg24px]][[File:Gupta_gujarat_a.svg28px]][[File:Gupta_allahabad_a.svg24px]][[File:Narbada_a.svg24px]][[File:Kistna_a.svg24px]]
[[File:Brahmi_aa.svg24px]][[File:Gupta_girnar_aa.svg24px]][[File:Gupta_ashoka_aa.svg24px]][[File:Gupta_gujarat_aa.svg32px]][[File:Gupta_allahabad_aa.svg28px]][[File:Narbada_aa.svg24px]][[File:Kistna_aa.svg24px]]
[[File:Brahmi_i.svg24px]][[File:Gupta_girnar_i.svg24px]][[File:Gupta_ashoka_i.svg24px]][[File:Gupta_gujarat_i.svg24px]][[File:Gupta_allahabad_i.svg24px]][[File:Narbada_i.svg24px]][[File:Kistna_i.svg24px]]
[[File:Brahmi_ii.svg24px]][[File:Gupta_gujarat_ii.svg24px]][[File:Narbada_ii.svg24px]]
[[File:Brahmi_u.svg24px]][[File:Gupta_girnar_u.svg24px]][[File:Gupta_ashoka_u.svg24px]][[File:Gupta_gujarat_u.svg24px]][[File:Gupta_allahabad_u.svg24px]]
[[File:Brahmi_uu.svg24px]][[File:Gupta_gujarat_uu.svg24px]]
[[File:Gupta_girnar_ri.svg28px]][[File:Gupta_ashoka_ri.svg28px]][[File:Gupta_gujarat_ri.svg28px]][[File:Gupta_allahabad_ri.svg28px]]
[[File:Brahmi_e.svg24px]][[File:Gupta_girnar_e.svg24px]][[File:Gupta_ashoka_e.svg24px]][[File:Gupta_gujarat_e.svg24px]][[File:Gupta_allahabad_e.svg24px]]
[[File:Brahmi_ai.svg24px]][[File:Gupta_girnar_ai.svg28px]]
[[File:Brahmi_o1.svg24px]][[File:Gupta_girnar_o.svg24px]][[File:Gupta_ashoka_o.svg28px]][[File:Gupta_gujarat_o.svg28px]][[File:Gupta_allahabad_o.svg28px]]
[[File:Gupta_ashoka_au.svg28px]][[File:Gupta_gujarat_au.svg28px]][[File:Gupta_allahabad_au.svg28px]]
[[File:Brahmi_k.svg24px]][[File:Gupta_girnar_k.svg24px]][[File:Gupta_ashoka_k.svg24px]][[File:Gupta_gujarat_k.svg24px]][[File:Gupta_allahabad_k.svg24px]][[File:Narbada_k.svg24px]][[File:Kistna_k.svg24px]]
[[File:Brahmi_kh.svg24px]][[File:Gupta_girnar_kh.svg24px]][[File:Gupta_ashoka_kh.svg24px]][[File:Gupta_gujarat_kh.svg24px]][[File:Gupta_allahabad_kh.svg24px]][[File:Narbada_kh.svg24px]][[File:Kistna_kh.svg24px]]
[[File:Brahmi_g.svg24px]][[File:Gupta_girnar_g.svg24px]][[File:Gupta_ashoka_g.svg24px]][[File:Gupta_gujarat_g.svg24px]][[File:Gupta_allahabad_g.svg24px]][[File:Narbada_g.svg24px]][[File:Kistna_g.svg24px]]
[[File:Brahmi_gh.svg24px]][[File:Gupta_girnar_gh.svg24px]][[File:Gupta_ashoka_gh.svg24px]][[File:Gupta_gujarat_gh.svg24px]][[File:Gupta_allahabad_gh.svg24px]][[File:Narbada_gh.svg24px]][[File:Kistna_gh.svg24px]]
[[File:Brahmi_ng.svg24px]][[File:Gupta_ashoka_ng.svg24px]][[File:Gupta_gujarat_ng.svg24px]][[File:Gupta_allahabad_ng.svg24px]][[File:Narbada_ng.svg28px]][[File:Kistna_ng.svg24px]]
[[File:Brahmi_c.svg24px]][[File:Gupta_girnar_c.svg24px]][[File:Gupta_ashoka_c.svg24px]][[File:Gupta_gujarat_c.svg24px]][[File:Gupta_allahabad_c.svg24px]][[File:Narbada_c.svg24px]][[File:Kistna_v.svg24px]]
[[File:Brahmi_ch.svg24px]][[File:Gupta_girnar_ch.svg24px]][[File:Gupta_ashoka_ch.svg24px]][[File:Gupta_gujarat_ch.svg24px]][[File:Gupta_allahabad_ch.svg24px]][[File:Narbada_ch.svg24px]]
[[File:Brahmi_j.svg24px]][[File:Gupta_girnar_j.svg24px]][[File:Gupta_ashoka_j.svg24px]][[File:Gupta_gujarat_j.svg24px]][[File:Gupta_allahabad_j.svg24px]][[File:Narbada_j.svg24px]][[File:Kistna_j.svg24px]]
[[File:Brahmi_jh.svg24px]][[File:Gupta_ashoka_jh.svg24px]]
[[File:Brahmi_ny.svg24px]][[File:Gupta_girnar_ny.svg24px]][[File:Gupta_ashoka_ny.svg24px]][[File:Gupta_gujarat_ny.svg24px]][[File:Gupta_allahabad_ny.svg24px]][[File:Narbada_ny.svg28px]][[File:Kistna_ny.svg28px]]
[[File:Brahmi_tt.svg24px]][[File:Gupta_girnar_tt.svg24px]][[File:Gupta_ashoka_tt.svg24px]][[File:Gupta_gujarat_tt.svg24px]][[File:Gupta_allahabad_tt.svg26px]][[File:Narbada_tt.svg24px]][[File:Kistna_tt.svg24px]]
[[File:Brahmi_tth.svg24px]][[File:Gupta_girnar_tth.svg24px]][[File:Gupta_ashoka_tth.svg24px]][[File:Gupta_gujarat_tth.svg24px]][[File:Gupta_allahabad_tth.svg24px]][[File:Narbada_tth.svg24px]][[File:Kistna_tth.svg24px]]
[[File:Brahmi_dd.svg24px]][[File:Gupta_girnar_dd.svg24px]][[File:Gupta_ashoka_dd.svg24px]][[File:Gupta_gujarat_dd.svg24px]][[File:Gupta_allahabad_dd.svg24px]][[File:Narbada_dd.svg24px]][[File:Kistna_dd.svg24px]]
[[File:Brahmi_ddh.svg24px]][[File:Gupta_girnar_ddh.svg24px]][[File:Gupta_ashoka_ddh.svg24px]][[File:Gupta_gujarat_ddh.svg24px]][[File:Gupta_allahabad_ddh.svg24px]][[File:Narbada_ddh.svg24px]][[File:Kistna_ddh.svg24px]]
[[File:Brahmi_nn.svg24px]][[File:Gupta_girnar_nn.svg24px]][[File:Gupta_ashoka_nn.svg24px]][[File:Gupta_gujarat_nn.svg24px]][[File:Gupta_allahabad_nn.svg24px]][[File:Narbada_nn.svg24px]][[File:Kistna_nn.svg24px]]
[[File:Brahmi_t.svg24px]][[File:Gupta_girnar_t.svg24px]][[File:Gupta_ashoka_t.svg24px]][[File:Gupta_gujarat_t.svg24px]][[File:Gupta_allahabad_t.svg24px]][[File:Narbada_t.svg24px]][[File:Kistna_t.svg24px]]
[[File:Brahmi_th.svg24px]][[File:Gupta_girnar_th.svg24px]][[File:Gupta_ashoka_th.svg24px]][[File:Gupta_gujarat_th.svg24px]][[File:Gupta_allahabad_th.svg24px]][[File:Narbada_th.svg24px]][[File:Kistna_th.svg24px]]
[[File:Brahmi_d.svg24px]][[File:Gupta_girnar_d.svg24px]][[File:Gupta_ashoka_d.svg24px]][[File:Gupta_gujarat_d.svg24px]][[File:Gupta_allahabad_d.svg24px]][[File:Narbada_d.svg24px]][[File:Kistna_d.svg24px]]
[[File:Brahmi_dh.svg24px]][[File:Gupta_girnar_dh.svg24px]][[File:Gupta_ashoka_dh.svg24px]][[File:Gupta_gujarat_dh.svg24px]][[File:Gupta_allahabad_dh.svg24px]][[File:Narbada_dh.svg24px]][[File:Kistna_dh.svg24px]]
[[File:Brahmi_n.svg24px]][[File:Gupta_girnar_n.svg24px]][[File:Gupta_ashoka_n.svg24px]][[File:Gupta_gujarat_n.svg24px]][[File:Gupta_allahabad_n.svg24px]][[File:Narbada_n.svg24px]][[File:Kistna_n.svg24px]]
[[File:Brahmi_p.svg24px]][[File:Gupta_girnar_p.svg24px]][[File:Gupta_ashoka_p.svg24px]][[File:Gupta_gujarat_p.svg24px]][[File:Gupta_allahabad_p.svg24px]][[File:Narbada_p.svg24px]][[File:Kistna_p.svg24px]]
[[File:Brahmi_ph.svg24px]][[File:Gupta_gujarat_ph.svg24px]][[File:Gupta_allahabad_ph.svg24px]][[File:Narbada_ph.svg24px]][[File:Kistna_ph.svg24px]]
[[File:Brahmi_b.svg24px]][[File:Gupta_girnar_b.svg24px]][[File:Gupta_ashoka_b.svg24px]][[File:Gupta_gujarat_b.svg24px]][[File:Gupta_allahabad_b.svg24px]][[File:Narbada_b.svg24px]][[File:Kistna_b.svg24px]]
[[File:Brahmi_bh.svg24px]][[File:Gupta_girnar_bh.svg24px]][[File:Gupta_ashoka_bh.svg24px]][[File:Gupta_gujarat_bh.svg24px]][[File:Gupta_allahabad_bh.svg24px]][[File:Narbada_bh.svg24px]][[File:Kistna_bh.svg24px]]
[[File:Brahmi_m.svg24px]][[File:Gupta_girnar_m.svg24px]][[File:Gupta_ashoka_m.svg24px]][[File:Gupta_gujarat_m.svg24px]][[File:Gupta_allahabad_m.svg24px]][[File:Narbada_m.svg24px]][[File:Kistna_m.svg24px]]
[[File:Brahmi_y.svg24px]][[File:Gupta_girnar_y.svg24px]][[File:Gupta_ashoka_y.svg24px]][[File:Gupta_gujarat_y.svg24px]][[File:Gupta_allahabad_y.svg24px]][[File:Narbada_y.svg24px]][[File:Kistna_y.svg24px]]
[[File:Brahmi_r.svg24px]][[File:Gupta_girnar_r.svg24px]][[File:Gupta_ashoka_r.svg24px]][[File:Gupta_gujarat_r.svg24px]][[File:Gupta_allahabad_r.svg24px]][[File:Narbada_r.svg24px]][[File:Kistna_r.svg24px]]
[[File:Brahmi_l.svg24px]][[File:Gupta_girnar_l.svg24px]][[File:Gupta_ashoka_l.svg24px]][[File:Gupta_gujarat_l.svg24px]][[File:Gupta_allahabad_l.svg24px]][[File:Narbada_l.svg24px]][[File:Kistna_l.svg24px]]
[[File:Brahmi_v.svg24px]][[File:Gupta_girnar_v.svg24px]][[File:Gupta_ashoka_v.svg24px]][[File:Gupta_gujarat_v.svg24px]][[File:Gupta_allahabad_v.svg24px]][[File:Narbada_v.svg24px]][[File:Kistna_v.svg24px]]
[[File:Brahmi_sh1.svg24px]][[File:Gupta_ashoka_sh.svg24px]][[File:Gupta_gujarat_sh.svg24px]][[File:Gupta_allahabad_sh.svg24px]][[File:Narbada_sh.svg24px]][[File:Kistna_sh.svg24px]]
[[File:Brahmi_ss.svg24px]][[File:Gupta_ashoka_ss.svg24px]][[File:Gupta_gujarat_ss.svg24px]][[File:Gupta_allahabad_ss.svg24px]][[File:Narbada_ss.svg24px]][[File:Kistna_ss.svg24px]]
[[File:Brahmi_s.svg24px]][[File:Gupta_girnar_s.svg24px]][[File:Gupta_ashoka_s.svg24px]][[File:Gupta_gujarat_s.svg24px]][[File:Gupta_allahabad_s.svg24px]][[File:Narbada_s.svg24px]][[File:Kistna_s.svg24px]]
[[File:Brahmi_h.svg24px]][[File:Gupta_girnar_h.svg24px]][[File:Gupta_ashoka_h.svg24px]][[File:Gupta_gujarat_h.svg24px]][[File:Gupta_allahabad_h.svg24px]][[File:Narbada_h.svg24px]][[File:Kistna_h.svg24px]]

Northern Brahmic

  • Gupta, 4th century
    • Sharada
      • Landa
        • Gurmukhi
        • Khojki
        • Khudabadi
        • Mahajani
        • Multani
      • Takri
        • Chamba
        • Dogri
        • Sirmauri
    • Siddhaṃ
      • Nagari
        • Devanagari
        • Modi
        • Gujarati
        • Nandinagari
        • Kaithi
          • Sylheti Nagari
      • Kamarupi
        • Assamese
      • Gaudi
        • Bengali–Assamese (Eastern Nagari)
          • Assamese
          • Bengali
        • Tirhuta (Mithilakshar)
        • Odia
        • Nepalese
          • Bhujimol
          • Ranjana
            • Soyombo
          • Pracalit
    • Tibetan
      • Meitei Mayek
      • Lepcha
        • Limbu
      • Khema
      • ʼPhags-pa
        • Zanabazar square
      • Marchen
        • Marchung
        • Pungs-chen
        • Pungs-chung
        • Drusha
    • Kalinga
    • Bhaiksuki
  • Tocharian (Slanting Brahmi)

Southern Brahmic

  • Tamil-Brahmi, 2nd century BC
    • Pallava
      • Tamil
      • Grantha
        • Malayalam
        • Tigalari
        • Saurashtra
        • Dhives Akuru
        • Thirke
      • Khmer
        • Khom Thai
        • Proto-Tai script?
          • Sukhothai
            • Thai
            • Fakkham
              • Thai Noi
                • Lao
          • Tai Viet
          • Dai Don
          • Lai Tay
          • Lai Pao
      • Cham
      • Kawi
        • Balinese
        • Batak
        • Buda
        • Javanese
        • Old Sundanese
          • Sundanese
        • Lontara
        • Makasar
        • Ulu scripts
          • Incung
          • Lampung
          • Lembak
          • Ogan
          • Pasemah
          • Rejang
          • Serawai
        • Baybayin
          • Buhid
          • Hanunó'o
          • Tagbanwa
          • Kulitan
          • Basahan
      • Mon–Burmese
        • Modern Mon
        • Burmese
          • Chakma
          • S'gaw Karen
          • Shan
          • Tanchangya
          • Lik-Tai scripts
            • Ahom
            • Khamti
            • Tai Le
        • Tai Tham
          • New Tai Lue
      • Pyu
    • Vatteluttu
      • Kolezhuthu
      • Malayanma
    • Sinhala
  • Bhattiprolu script
  • Kadamba
    • Telugu-Kannada
      • Telugu
      • Kannada
        • Goykanadi

Unicode of Brahmic scripts

As of Unicode version , the following Brahmic scripts have been encoded:

scriptderivationPeriod of derivationusage notesISO 15924Unicode range(s)sample
AhomBurmese13th centuryExtinct Ahom languageAhomU+11700–U+1174F
BalineseKawi11th centuryBalinese languageBaliU+1B00–U+1B7Fᬅᬓ᭄ᬲᬭᬩᬮᬶ
BatakPallava14th centuryBatak languagesBatkU+1BC0–U+1BFF
BaybayinKawi14th centuryTagalog, other Philippine languagesTglgU+1700–U+171F
Bengali-Assamese (Eastern Nagari)Siddhaṃ11th centuryAssamese language (Assamese script variant), Bengali language (Bengali script variant), Bishnupriya, Maithili, Meitei language (constitutionally termed as "Manipuri")BengU+0980–U+09FF{{flatlist
BhaiksukiGupta11th centuryWas used around the turn of the first millennium for writing SanskritBhksU+11C00–U+11C6F
BuhidKawi14th centuryBuhid languageBuhdU+1740–U+175F
Mon-BurmesePallava11th centuryBurmese language, Mon language, numerous modifications for other languages including Chakma, Eastern and Western Pwo Karen, Geba Karen, Kayah, Rumai Palaung, S'gaw Karen, ShanMymrU+1000–U+109F, U+A9E0–U+A9FF, U+AA60–U+AA7F, U+116D0–U116FF
ChakmaBurmese8th centuryChakma languageCakmU+11100–U+1114F
ChamPallava8th centuryCham languageChamU+AA00–U+AA5F
DevanagariNagari13th centurySeveral Indo-Aryan languages (Konkani, Marathi, Hindi, Sanskrit, Nepali, Bhili, Sindhi, Gujarati etc), Sino-Tibetan languages (Bodo, Nepal Bhasa, Sherpa etc.), Mundari (Austroasiatic language) and others.DevaU+0900–U+097F, U+A8E0–U+A8FF, U+11B00–U+11B5F
Dhives AkuruGuptaBefore 6th-8th centuryWas used to write the Maldivian language up until the 20th century.DiakU+11900–U+1195F
DograTakriWas used to write Dogri. Dogra script is closely related to Takri.DogrU+11800–U+1184F
GranthaPallava6th centuryRestricted use in traditional Vedic schools to write Sanskrit. Was widely used by Tamil speakers for Sanskrit and the classical language Manipravalam.GranU+11300–U+1137F
GujaratiNagari17th centuryGujarati language, Kutchi languageGujrU+0A80–U+0AFF
Gunjala Gondiuncertain16th centuryUsed for writing the Adilabad dialect of the Gondi language.GongU+11D60–U+11DAF
GurmukhiSharada16th centuryPunjabi languageGuruU+0A00–U+0A7F
Hanunó'oKawi14th centuryHanuno'o languageHanoU+1720–U+173F
JavaneseKawi16th centuryJavanese language, Sundanese language, Madurese languageJavaU+A980–U+A9DF
KaithiNagari16th centuryHistorically used for writing legal, administrative, and private records.KthiU+11080–U+110CF
KannadaTelugu-KannadaAround 4th-6th centurySanskrit, Kannada, Konkani, Tulu, Badaga, Kodava, Beary, othersKndaU+0C80–U+0CFF
KawiPallava8th centuryKawi was found primarily in Java and used across much of Maritime Southeast Asia between the 8th century and the 16th century.KawiU+11F00–U+11F5F
KhmerPallava11th centuryKhmer languageKhmrU+1780–U+17FF, U+19E0–U+19FF
KhojkiLanda16th centurySome use by Ismaili communities. Was used by the Khoja community for Muslim religious literature.KhojU+11200–U+1124F
KhudawadiLanda16th centuryWas used by Sindhi communities for correspondence and business records.SindU+112B0–U+112FF
LaoKhmer14th centuryLao language, othersLaooU+0E80–U+0EFF
LepchaTibetan8th centuryLepcha languageLepcU+1C00–U+1C4F
LimbuLepcha9th centuryLimbu languageLimbU+1900–U+194F
LontaraKawi17th centuryBuginese language, othersBugiU+1A00–U+1A1F
MahajaniLanda16th centuryHistorically used in northern India for writing accounts and financial records.MahjU+11150–U+1117F
MakasarKawi17th centuryWas used in South Sulawesi, Indonesia for writing the Makassarese language. Makasar script is also known as "Old Makassarese" or "Makassarese bird script" in English-language scholarly works.MakaU+11EE0–U+11EFF
MalayalamGrantha12th centuryMalayalamMlymU+0D00–U+0D7F
MarchenTibetan7th centuryWas used in the Tibetan Bön tradition to write the extinct Zhang-Zhung languageMarcU+11C70–U+11CBF
Meetei MayekTibetan6th centuryofficially used for Meitei language (constitutionally termed as "Manipuri") in accordance to "The Manipur Official Language (Amendment) Act, 2021"MteiU+AAE0–U+AAFF, U+ABC0–U+ABFF
ModiNāgarī17th centuryWas used to write the Marathi languageModiU+11600–U+1165F
MultaniLandaWas used to write the Multani languageMultU+11280–U+112AF
NandinagariNāgarī7th centuryHistorically used to write Sanskrit in southern IndiaNandU+119A0–U+119FF
New Tai LueTai Tham1950sTai Lü languageTaluU+1980–U+19DF
OdiaSiddhaṃ13th centuryOdia languageOryaU+0B00–U+0B7F
ʼPhags-paTibetan13th centuryHistorically used during the Mongol Yuan dynasty.PhagU+A840–U+A87F
Prachalit (Newa)NepalHas been used for writing the Sanskrit, Nepali, Hindi, Bengali, and Maithili languagesNewaU+11400–U+1147F
RejangKawi18th centuryRejang language, mostly obsoleteRjngU+A930–U+A95F
SaurashtraGrantha20th centurySaurashtra language, mostly obsoleteSaurU+A880–U+A8DF
SharadaGupta8th centuryWas used for writing Sanskrit and KashmiriShrdU+11180–U111DF, U+11B60–U11B7F
SiddhamGupta7th centuryWas used for writing SanskritSiddU+11580–U+115FF
SinhalaBrahmi4th centurySinhala languageSinhU+0D80–U+0DFF, U+111E0–U+111FF
SundaneseKawi14th centurySundanese languageSundU+1B80–U+1BBF, U+1CC0–U+1CCF
Sylheti NagariNagari16th centuryHistorically used for writing the Sylheti languageSyloU+A800–U+A82F
TagbanwaKawi14th centuryVarious languages of Palawan, nearly extinctTagbU+1760–U+177F
Tai LeMon13th centuryTai Nüa languageTaleU+1950–U+197F
Tai ThamMon13th centuryNorthern Thai language, Tai Lü language, Khün languageLanaU+1A20–U+1AAF
Tai VietThai16th centuryTai Dam languageTavtU+AA80–U+AADF
Tai Yo/Lai TayKhmer16th centuryTai Yo languageTayoU+1E6C0–U1E6FF
TakriSharada16th centuryWas used for writing Chambeali, and other languagesTakrU+11680–U+116CF
TamilPallava2nd centuryTamil languageTamlU+0B80–U+0BFF, U+11FC0–U+11FFF
TeluguTelugu-Kannada5th centuryTelugu languageTeluU+0C00–U+0C7F
ThaiOld Khmer13th centuryThai languageThaiU+0E00–U+0E7F
TibetanGupta8th centuryClassical Tibetan, Dzongkha, Ladakhi languageTibtU+0F00–U+0FFF
Tigalari/TuluGrantha9th centuryTulu, Kannada, and SanskritTutgU+11380–U113FF
TirhutaSiddham13th centuryHistorically used for the Maithili languageTirhU+11480–U+114DF

References

References

  1. (2010). "A History of the Japanese Language". Cambridge University Press.
  2. Court, C. (1996). Introduction. In P. T. Daniels & W. Bright (Eds.) ''The World's Writing Systems'' (pp. 443). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
  3. Court, C. (1996). The spread of Brahmi Script into Southeast Asia. In P. T. Daniels & W. Bright (Eds.) ''The World's Writing Systems'' (pp. 445–449). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
  4. Sproat, Richard. (2006-07-20). "Brahmi-derived scripts, script layout, and segmental awareness". Written Language and Literacy.
  5. (2003). "Shan Manuscripts, Part 1".
  6. "GAZETTE TITLE: The Manipur Official Language (Amendment) Act, 2021".
  7. Pandey, Anshuman. (2018-01-23). "L2/18-016R: Proposal to encode Dives Akuru in Unicode".
  8. Pandey, Anshuman. (2015-11-04). "L2/15-234R: Proposal to encode the Dogra script".
  9. (June 2018). "The Unicode Standard, Version 11.0". Unicode, Inc..
  10. Aditya Bayu Perdana and Ilham Nurwansah 2020. [https://www.unicode.org/L2/L2020/20284r-kawi.pdf Proposal to encode Kawi]
  11. (June 2018). "The Unicode Standard, Version 11.0". Unicode, Inc..
  12. Pandey, Anshuman. (2015-11-02). "L2/15-233: Proposal to encode the Makasar script in Unicode".
  13. (1997). "A Grammar of Meithei". De Gruyter.
  14. Datta, Amaresh. (1987). "Encyclopaedia of Indian Literature". [[Sahitya Akademi]].
  15. Salomon, Richard G.. (1996). "The World's Writing Systems". Oxford University Press.
  16. (1948). "Alphabet a key to the history of mankind".
  17. (2022-12-16). "L2/22-289R: Final Proposal to encode the Tai Yo Script".
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