Ayatollah

Etymology

The title is originally derived from the Arabic word ar post-modified with the word Allah, making ar (). The combination has been translated to English as 'Sign of God', 'Divine Sign' or 'Reflection of God'. It is a frequently used term in the Quran, but its usage in this context is presumably a particular reference to the verse "We shall show them Our signs on the horizons and in their own selves", while it has been also used to refer to The Twelve Imams by Shias.

Variants used are ar (), ar (, dual form) or ar (, plural form) and ar ().

Qualifications

Though no formal hierarchical structure exists among Shia clerics, a "hierarchy of difference" can be elaborated to describe the situation. Traditionally, the title Ayatollah was awarded by popular usage only to the very few highest ranking, prominent Mujtahid. Qualifications included

• being a definite Mujtahid,
• being regarded among peers as superior in aʿlamīyat () and
• being superior in riyāsat (), which is determined by popular acclamation, as well as collecting a huge amount of Khums (religious taxes). Consequently, by the 1960s a cleric addressed as an Ayatollah was expected to be a Marja'.

Devaluation trend

The title of Ayatollah (and other Iranian Shi'i titles) has been "cheapened" since then.

Roy Mottahedeh describes how the title of ayatollah was determined in the mid to late 20th century.

According to Michael M. J. Fischer, the Iranian Revolution led to "rapid inflation of religious titles", so that almost every senior cleric began to be called an Ayatollah. raising the number of individuals who call themselves an Ayatollah dramatically.

An unwritten rule of addressing for Shia clerics has been developed after the 1980s as a result of Iranian Revolution, despite the fact no official institutional way of conferring titles is available. At first the title that had been reserved for a Marja', was gradually applied to an established Mujtahid. With the post-revolutionary bureaucratization of Shia seminaries under the Islamic Republic, four levels of studies were introduced and those clerics who end the fourth level, also known as Dars-e-Kharej () and pass the final exam, were called Ayatollahs. Moojan Momen wrote in 2015 that every cleric who finished his training calls himself an Ayatollah and this trend has led to emergence of "thousands of Ayatollahs".

This inflation led to invention of a new title, Ayatollah al-Uzma (). Originally, about half a dozen people were addressed as al-Uzma, but as of 2015, the number of people who claimed that title was reportedly over 50.

Political connotations

Another post-revolutionary change in what makes an ayatollah has been the falling away (at least in many important situations), of purely religious credentials and informal acclamation, and its replacement by political criteria.

Ali Khamenei—who was addressed with mid-level title of Hujjat al-Islam when he was in office as President of Iran—was bestowed the title Ayatollah immediately after he was elected Supreme Leader of Iran in 1989, without meeting regular unwritten criteria (such as authoring a Risalah). Since the 2010s, sources under government control tend to give him more distinguished titles like Grand Ayatollah and Imam.

Certain clerics, such as Mohammad Kazem Shariatmadari and Hussein-Ali Montazeri, who had fallen out of favor with the rulers were downgraded by not being addressed as an Ayatollah.

Usage

Origins, early 20th century

The earliest known address of this title is for Ibn Mutahhar Al-Hilli (died 1374), however it was not in use as a title for those qualifying until the 20th century. Glassé states that following domination of Twelver branch by followers of ar school and demise of ar school, the title was popularized by ars as an attempt to promote their status. Mirza Ali Aqa Tabrizi was the first one to use the term ar for the sources of emulation in Najaf, especially Akhund Khurasani (1839–1911), to distinguish them from the clerics of lower rank in Tehran, during the 1905-1911 Persian Constitutional Revolution. (Mirza Sayyed Mohammad Tabatabai and Seyyed Abdollah Behbahani were also given that honorific by constitutionalists according to Loghatnameh Dehkhoda.)

Hamid Algar maintains that this title entered general usage possibly because it was an "indirect result of the reform and strengthening of the religious institution in Qom". Abdul-Karim Haeri Yazdi (1859–1937) who founded Qom Seminary, may be the first to bear the title according to Algar.

While the title Ayatollah was sporadically used during the 1930s, it became widespread in the 1940s.

Stages of contemporary titles for Shia clerics in Iran

Grand Ayatollah

Main article: Marja'

Only a few of the most important ayatollahs are accorded the rank of Grand Ayatollah (Ayatollah Uzma, "Great Sign of God"). When an ayatollah gains a significant following and they are recognized for religiously correct views, he is considered a Marja'-e-Taqlid, which in common parlance is "grand ayatollah".{{cite book | author-link = Emad Shahin

Use of the term as a pejorative

In the West, particularly the United States, the term "Ayatollah" may be used as a pejorative to describe religious fundamentalism. Sam Miller of London Review of Books states that following the Iranian Revolution, "ayatollah" became common use; Miller described the pejorative version of the term as "[evoking] an old, turbaned, bearded man, sitting in judgment, looking like a crow and ordering the execution of the impure".

However, the term is generally used to describe any kind of fundamentalism, not just Islamism. For example, in the choice of title for the 1987 English translation of Raphael Mergui and Philippe Simonnot's book Israel's Ayatollahs: Meir Kahane and the Far Right in Israel, or in the United States, where former jurist and lawyer Roy Moore has been called the "Ayatollah of Alabama" by his critics due to espousing Christian nationalism, opposition to secularism, and far-right politics.

Explanatory notes

References

Citations

General and cited sources

References

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2. {{harvnb. Glassé. 2003
3. {{harvnb. Golkar. 2017
4. Sociology of religions: perspectives of Ali Shariati (2008) Mir Mohammed Ibrahim
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6. {{harvnb. al-Shaykh al-Saduq. 1982
7. {{harvnb. Leaman. 2006
8. {{harvnb. Salkind. 2006
9. {{harvnb. Hughes. 2013
10. {{harvnb. Momen. 1985
11. Mottahedeh, Roy. (2000). "The Mantle of the Prophet : Religion and Politics in Iran". One World.
12. Fischer, Michael M. J.. (1980). "Iran: From Religious Dispute to Revolution". Harvard University Press].
13. {{harvnb. Momen. 1985
14. {{harvnb. Momen. 2015
15. Amuzegar, Jahangir. (2014). "The Islamic Republic of Iran: Reflections on an Emerging Economy". Routledge.
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18. Bill, James A.. (1982). "Power and Religion in Revolutionary Iran". Middle East Journal.
19. {{harvnb. Calmard. 2009
20. {{harvnb. Nasr. Nasr. Dabashi. 1989
21. {{harvnb. Golkar. 2017
22. Siddiqui, Kalim. (1980). "The Islamic Revolution: Achievements, Obstacles & Goals". Open Press for [[The Muslim Institute]].
23. Ḥairi, Abdul-Hadi. (1977). "Shi-ism and Constitutionalism in Iran: A Study of the Role Played by the Persian Residents of Iraq in Iranian Politics". Brill.
24. "Ayatollah Ali Khamenei: Central figure of Iran's Islamic Revolution". Todayheadlinehub.
25. Miller, Sam. (1986). "God's Medium".
26. Jarvie, Jenny. (September 30, 2016). "'Not going to miss the Ayatollah of Alabama': State's chief justice ousted over anti-gay-marriage order".