Arterial stiffness

Definition

Arterial stiffness is commonly measured as carotid–femoral pulse wave velocity (cfPWV) or brachial–ankle PWV (baPWV). For baPWV, general cutoff values for cardiovascular risk assessment are 1800 cm/s for high risk. Increased cfPWV and baPWV values predict an increased risk of new-onset hypertension in apparently healthy people.

Background

When the heart contracts it generates a pulse or energy wave that travels through the circulatory system. The speed of travel of this pulse wave (pulse wave velocity, PWV) is related to the stiffness of the arteries. Other terms that are used to describe the mechanical properties of arteries include elastance, or the reciprocal (inverse) of elastance, compliance. The relationship between arterial stiffness and pulse wave velocity was first predicted by Thomas Young in his Croonian Lecture of 1808, and is generally described by the Moens–Korteweg equation or the Bramwell–Hill equation. Typical values of PWV in the aorta range from approximately 5 m/s to over 15 m/s.

Measurement of aortic PWV provides some of the strongest evidence concerning the prognostic significance of large-artery stiffening. Increased aortic PWV has been shown to predict cardiovascular, and in some cases all-cause, mortality in individuals with end stage kidney disease, hypertension, diabetes mellitus and in the general population. A 2024 paper reported that the use of PWV, previously a predominantly research-focused tool, had become a marker of clinical importance. Devices are available that measure arterial stiffness parameters augmentation index and pulse wave velocity, including Complior, CVProfilor, PeriScope, Hanbyul Meditech, Mobil-O-Graph NG, BP Plus (Pulsecor), PulsePen, BPLab Vasotens, Arteriograph, Vascular Explorer, and SphygmoCor.

Also noted are newer pulse wave velocity measurement tools like the iHeart Internal Age device, a fingertip device that measures aortic pulse wave velocity and arterial stiffness through the pulse in the finger.

Pathophysiological consequences

The primary sites of end-target organ damage following an increase in arterial stiffness are the heart, the brain (stroke, white matter hyperintensities (WMHs)), the placenta, and the kidneys (age-related loss of kidney function).

Firstly, stiffened arteries compromise the Windkessel effect of the arteries. The Windkessel effect buffers the pulsatile ejection of blood from the heart converting it into a more steady, even outflow. This function depends on the elasticity of the arteries and stiffened arteries require a greater amount of force to permit them to accommodate the volume of blood ejected from the heart (stroke volume). This increased force requirement equates to an increase in pulse pressure. The increase in pulse pressure may result in increased damage to blood vessels in target organs such as the brain or kidneys. This effect may be exaggerated if the increase in arterial stiffness results in reduced wave reflection and more propagation of the pulsatile pressure into the microcirculation.

An increase in arterial stiffness also increases the load on the heart, since it has to perform more work to maintain the stroke volume. Over time, this increased workload may cause left ventricular hypertrophy and left ventricular remodelling, which can lead to heart failure. The increased workload may also be associated with a higher heart rate, a proportionately longer duration of systole and a comparative reduction of duration of diastole. This decreases the amount of time available for perfusion of cardiac tissue, which largely occurs in diastole.

Arterial stiffness may also affect the time at which pulse wave reflections return to the heart. As the pulse wave travels through the circulation it undergoes reflection at sites where the transmission properties of the arterial tree change (i.e. sites of impedance mismatch). These reflected waves propagate backward towards the heart. The speed of propagation (i.e. PWV) is increased in stiffer arteries and consequently reflected waves will arrive at the heart earlier in systole. This increases the load on the heart in systole. Elevated PWV could represent an important parameter for identifying children with CKD and high cardiovascular risk.

References

References

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