Anti-Zionism

Anti-Zionism before 1948

Early Jewish anti-Zionism

In Europe

From the beginning, there was resistance to Zionism and Theodor Herzl's call for the establishment of a Jewish state in Palestine. Opposition came from diverse sources: many Orthodox rabbis held that a Jewish state before the messiah was against divine will; assimilationist Jewish liberals feared Zionism threatened efforts at integration and citizenship in European states; and various left-wing Jewish movements, such as the Bund and Autonomists, promoted alternative forms of Jewish identity. In Western Europe, established Jewish communities often preferred loyalty to their nation-states over Jewish particularism. Some Reform rabbis removed references to Zion from liturgy, while others criticized Zionism as unrealistic. By contrast, the Mizrachi movement represented religious Zionist support, though more traditionalist groups like Agudat Yisrael opposed cooperation with secular Zionists. In the Soviet Union, the Yevsektsiya curtailed Zionist activity as part of its campaign against "Jewish bourgeois nationalism".

Outside Europe

In regions outside Europe and North America, Zionism was often met with disinterest and regarded as a foreign ideology.

In Morocco, for example, it was introduced by Europeans in port cities and met with skepticism by the local Sephardic populations, who regarded it as irreligious and not concerned with their interests. It was later actively promoted by envoys from the Zionist fundraising organizations Jewish National Fund and Keren Hayesod. Urban, elite Moroccan Jews were divided on the question of Zionism: some supported modern secular Zionism, but some who were invested in the project of Westernization saw Zionism as an obstacle to achieving assimilation and integration with the Europeans; others saw Zionism as an obstacle to a favored Jewish-Muslim alliance and coexistence in Morocco. L'Union Marocaine, a francophone Jewish newspaper, spoke for the alliancistes associated with the Alliance Israélite Universelle, who saw Zionism as an obstacle to assimilation with the Europeans, and challenged L'Avenir Illustré, which published Zionist propaganda. Rural Moroccan Jews lived in relative isolation in their villages and were not very involved with Zionism until the Jewish Agency and Mossad LeAliya actively recruited them for migration by in the 1950s and 60s. There was no significant migration of Moroccan Jews to Palestine before the 1948 war and the establishment of the State of Israel.

In Egypt, Zionist activity began at the start of the 20th century, but there was limited engagement with it among Egyptian Jews until 1942–43, with the arrival of Zionist emissaries from Palestine and Zionist activists among the Allied forces in Egypt. According to Joel Beinin, "because most Egyptian Jews were relatively secure and comfortable during the 1930s, few saw the point of risking their position by ostentatious support for Zionism", and those who did express support for Zionism rarely migrated to Palestine themselves. In 1946, Jewish members of Iskra, an underground communist movement, founded the Jewish Anti-Zionist League.

Zionism in Iraq started to spread in the early 20th century. Although Iraqi Jews started to learn about the Zionist Organization (known after 1960 as the World Zionist Organization) through newspapers and periodicals published in Hebrew in Europe and Palestine in the 19th century, Iraqi Jews only made contact with the ZO in 1913.

Early non-Jewish Arab anti-Zionism

Arabs began paying attention to Zionism in the late Ottoman period. In 1899, compelled by a "holy duty of conscience", Yousef al-Khalidi, mayor of Jerusalem and a member of the Ottoman Parliament, wrote a letter to Zadok Kahn, the chief rabbi of France to voice his concerns that Zionism, which he called a "natural, beautiful and just" idea, would jeopardize the friendly associations among Muslims, Christians and Jews in the Ottoman Empire. He wrote: "Who can deny the rights of the Jews to Palestine? My God, historically it is your country!" But Khalidi suggested that "geographically, [it had] no hope of realisation"; since Palestine was already inhabited, the Zionists should find another place for the implementation of their political goals: "in the name of God", he wrote, "let Palestine be left alone."

According to Rashid Khalidi, Alexander Scholch and Dominique Perrin, Yousef Khalidi was prescient in predicting that, regardless of Jewish historic rights, given the geopolitical context, Zionism could stir an awakening of Arab nationalism uniting Christians and Muslims. Kahn showed the letter to Theodor Herzl, who on 19 March 1899 replied to Khalidi in French arguing that both the Ottoman Empire and the non-Jewish population of Palestine would benefit from Jewish immigration. As to Khalidi's concerns about the non-Jewish majority population of Palestine, Herzl replied rhetorically: "who would think of sending them away?" Rashid Khalidi notes that this was penned four years after Herzl had confided to his diary the idea of spiriting the Arab population away to make way for Jews.

The Maronite Christian Naguib Azoury, in his 1905 The Awakening of the Arab Nation, warned that the "Jewish people" were engaged in a concerted drive to establish a country in the area they believed was their homeland. Subsequently, the Palestinian Christian-owned and highly influential newspaper Falastin was founded in 1911 in the then Arab-majority city of Jaffa and soon became the area's fiercest and most consistent critic of Zionism. It helped shape Palestinian identity and nationalism.

Palestinian and broader Arab anti-Zionism took a decisive turn, and became a serious force, with the November 1917 publication of the Balfour Declaration – which arguably emerged from an antisemitic milieu – in the face of strenuous resistance from two anti-Zionists, Lord Curzon and Edwin Montagu, then the (Jewish) Secretary of State for India. Other than assuring civil equality for all future Palestinians regardless of creed, it promised diaspora Jews territorial rights to Palestine, where, according to the 1914 Ottoman census of its citizens, 83% were Muslim, 11.2% Christian, and 5% Jewish. The majority Muslim and Christian population constituting 94% of the citizenry only had their "religious rights" recognized.

Given that Arab notables were almost unanimous in repudiating Zionism, and incidents such as the Surafend massacre (perpetrated by Australian and New Zealand troops serving alongside the British) stirred deep resentment against Britain throughout the area, the British soon came to the conclusion, which they confided to the Americans during the King–Crane Commission, that the provisions for Zionism could only be implemented by military force. To this end, the British Army calculated that a garrison of at least 50,000 troops would be required to implement the Zionist project on Palestinian soil. According to Henry Laurens, uneasiness among British troops stationed in the region over the task of ostensibly supporting Zionism, something that clashed with their customary paternalistic treatment of colonial populations, accounted for much of the anti-Zionist sentiment that UK military personnel based in Palestine expressed.

Anti-Zionist reactions to the Balfour Declaration

American approval of the Balfour Declaration came about through the secret mediation of the antisemitic anti-Zionist Colonel House with President Woodrow Wilson, bypassing Secretary of State Robert Lansing. Wilson's recognition alarmed many American Jewish leaders who viewed the U.S. as their "new Zion." At the Paris Peace Conference, 299 rabbis voiced opposition to the notion of a Jewish Palestine, and Lansing thought that Zionism contradicted Wilson's principle of self-determination. This moment helped establish an anti-Zionist tradition in the US State Department.

Once the Occupied Enemy Territory Administration (OETA) began to implement the Declaration, both sides had reason to accuse the authorities of bias. Several contemporary sources credit the notion that English administrators were sympathetic to Arabs and diffident about Jews. One Zionist complaint was that several of the British Mandatory administration's higher functionaries tolerated anti-Zionist and even antisemitic policies. Orthodox Jewish anti-Zionist figures such as Jacob Israël de Haan told the Mandate authorities that Zionists did not represent the entire Jewish community.

The British press was often critical: the Northcliffe Press was openly anti-Zionist, Lord Beaverbrook opposed the Mandate, and complaints were made about the heavy burden of governing land with competing national interests. British anti-Zionism and antisemitism was also tinged with anti-Bolshevism, as Jews were accused of having played a major role in the Russian Revolution. Palestinians sought to discredit Zionism by associating it with communist infiltration, which the British took seriously. The 1920 Palin Commission investigation into the anti-Zionist riots at Nebi Musa found that there was a widespread perception among Arabs, reflected among British residents and officials, that Zionists are "arrogant, insolent and provocative".[[File:1920 demontration Palestine.jpg|thumb|The first large-scale anti-Zionist demonstrations in [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]], March 1920, during the [[Occupied Enemy Territory Administration]]. The crowd of Muslim and Christian Palestinians are shown outside [[Damascus Gate]], [[Old City of Jerusalem]].]]The Marxist wing of the Zionist movement, Poale Zion, fractured in the 1920s when some members came to believe that Zionism would be discriminatory to Palestine's Arab majority. Some factions of Poale Zion gravitated toward communism. In 1924, the Comintern recognized the Palestine Communist Party (PCP), which retained some Zionist traces, and Palestinian Arabs joined the party. The General Jewish Labor Union of Eastern Europe promoted doykayt (hereness), and dismissed Zionism as "separatist, chauvinist, clerical and conservative". The Communist Party USA (CPUSA) called Zionism "a colonial project". Many Jewish communal organizations in Germany and Italy advanced assimilationist anti-Zionism, emphasizing loyalty to their states.

Religious anti-Zionism

Some leaders within Orthodox Judaism outside of the United States expressed opposition to political Zionism because the Zionist movement espoused nationalism in a secular fashion and used "Zion", "Jerusalem", "Land of Israel", "redemption", and "ingathering of exiles" as literal rather than sacred terms, endeavoring to achieve them in this world. According to Menachem Keren-Kratz, the situation in the United States differed, with "most Reform rabbis and laypeople repudiat[ing]" Zionism while most of the Orthodox supported it. Elaborating on the work of David N. Myers, Jewish historian Jonathan Judaken wrote in 2013 that "numerous Jewish traditions have insisted that preservation of what is most precious about Judaism and Jewishness 'demands' a principled anti-Zionism or post-Zionism." This tradition dwindled in the aftermath of the Holocaust and the establishment of the State of Israel, but Judaken saw it as still alive in religious groups such as Neturei Karta and among many intellectuals of Jewish background in Israel and the diaspora, such as George Steiner, Tony Judt, and Baruch Kimmerling.

Anti-Zionism after World War II and the creation of Israel

There was a shift in the meaning of anti-Zionism after the events of the 1940s. Whereas pre-1948 anti-Zionism was against the hypothetical establishment of a Jewish state in Palestine, post-1948 anti-Zionism had to contend with the existence of the State of Israel. This often meant taking a retaliatory position to the new reality of Jewish sovereignty in the Middle East. The overriding impulse of post-1948 anti-Zionism is to dismantle the current State of Israel and replace it with something else.

1947–1948

On the eve of the foundation of Israel in 1948, Judah Magnes, president of Jerusalem's Hebrew University, opposed the imminent establishment of a Jewish state, and advocated binationalism. According to Charles Glass, his opposition was grounded on a view, anticipated in the 1930s by Arthur Ruppin, that such a state would automatically entail a situation of continuous warfare with the Arab world, an inference Glass says Moshe Dayan later endorsed.

The Soviet Union and the Eastern Bloc

Main article: Soviet anti-Zionism, Soviet Union and the Arab–Israeli conflict, History of the Jews in Russia and the Soviet Union

By 1948, when the Soviet Union recognized Israel, Jewish institutional life within its borders had been effectively dismantled. The Soviet Union nonetheless played a leading role in recognizing the state of Israel, was harshly critical of Arab states opposing it and enabled Israel to procure substantial armaments in 1948–1949. But at roughly the same time, in early 1948, Ilya Ehrenburg had been co-opted to write an article for Pravda that set forth what later became the authoritative rationale for Soviet hostility to Zionism, as aspiring to create a dwarfish state of capitalism. Virulent antisemitism, particularly after the fabricated Doctors' plot affair in 1953, and with clear parallels to the content of The Protocols of the Elders of Zion, came to the fore, conflating anti-Zionism and antisemitism despite the conceptual distinction between the two. A deep-seated antisemitic strain within Russian culture influencing the Soviet state's approach to events in the Middle Easts emerged to intensify the Soviet leadership's anti-Zionist hostility to Israel as a major threat to the communist world, especially in the aftermath of the Six-Day War, when official documents and party connivance resuscitated antisemitic imagery related to Zionism. According to historian Åsmund Borgen Gjerde:Within higher Soviet echelons, a particular logic existed that fostered a view of "Zionism" as an immense, conspiratorial threat to the Soviet Union. In one sense, this logic grew out of a more general tendency to view nonconformity as conspiracy: the Soviets had established extremely narrow boundaries for what constituted acceptable Jewish identity; and, when some Soviet Jews began to voice nationalist sentiments after the Six-Day War, Soviet leaders saw this expression of nonconformity as essentially a hostile act, warranting severe counter-measures.

In 1952, Czechoslavakia, which had been one of the most pro-Zionist of the Eastern Bloc states, launched an antisemitic show trial against 14 Jewish members of the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia (KSČ), including many high-ranking officials, known as the Slánský trial. Although most of those targeted were ardent anti-Zionists, they were accused of participating in a Zionist conspiracy against the Czechoslovak Republic. There were also anti-Zionist show trials in Hungary and Romania (such as that of Mișu Benvenisti) in the same period.

East Germany's government was passionately anti-Zionist. From the 1950s through the 1970s, East Germany supplied Israel's neighboring Arab states with weapons. Immediately after the Six-Day War in 1967, East German Communist Party chairman Walter Ulbricht claimed that Israel had not been threatened by its neighboring Arab states before the war. He continually compared Israel to Nazi Germany.

In 1967-68, Poland's Stalinist ruling party, the Polish United Workers' Party, launched an "anti-Zionist campaign", purging Jews from public life on the grounds that they were "Zionists". At least 13,000 Poles of Jewish origin emigrated in 1968–1972 after being fired from their positions and various other forms of harassment. The armed forces were also purged in the name of "anti-Zionism".

Two waves of mass Russian-Jewish immigration to Israel, the Soviet Union aliyah and 1990s post-Soviet aliyah, took place from the 1970s onward. As late as 1983, an Anti-Zionist Committee of the Soviet Public was launched in the USSR to combat Zionist propaganda. According to Anthony Julius, writing in 1989, "Soviet anti-Zionism was credibly considered the greatest threat to Israel and Jews generally... This 'anti-Zionism' survived the collapse of the Soviet system." In the 21st century, according to Izabella Tabarovsky, factions within American academia have supported boycotts of Israel using language that is Soviet in origin.

Arab and Palestinian anti-Zionism

In a retrospective analysis of Arab anti-Zionism in 1978, Yehoshafat Harkabi argued, in a view reflected in the works of the anti-Zionist Russian-Jewish orientalist Maxime Rodinson, that Arab hostility to Zionism arose as a rational response in historical context to a genuine threat, and, with the establishment of Israel, their anti-Zionism was shaped as much by Israeli policies and actions as by traditional antisemitic stereotypes, and only later degenerated into an irrational attitude. Anthropologist of conflict Anne de Jong asserts that direct resistance to Zionism from the inhabitants of historical Palestine "focused less on religious arguments and was instead centered on countering the experience of colonial dispossession and opposing the Zionist enforcement of ethnic division of the indigenous population."

Until 1948, according to Derek Penslar, antisemitism in Palestine "grew directly out of the conflict with the Zionist movement and its gradual yet purposeful settlement of the country", rather than the European model vision of Jews as the cause of all the ills of mankind. According to Anthony Julius, anti-Zionism, a highly heterogeneous phenomenon, and Palestinian nationalism, are separate ideologies; one need not have an opinion on the Israeli–Palestinian conflict to be an anti-Zionist.

One Arab criticism of Zionism is that Islamic–Jewish relations were entirely peaceful until Zionism conquered Arab lands. Arab delegates to the United Nations also claimed that Zionists had unethically enticed Arab Jews to come to Israel. According to Gil Troy, neither claim is historically accurate, as Jews did not have the same rights as Muslims in these lands and had periodically experienced violent riots.

Zionism as racism United Nations debate

Main article: United Nations General Assembly Resolution 3379

In the 1960s and 1970s, Soviets and Americans interpreted the Arab–Israeli conflict as a proxy war between the totalitarianism of the Soviet–Arab alliance and the democracies of the Western world. Israel's victory in the Six-Day War of 1967 necessitated a diplomatic response by the Soviet–Arab alliance. The result was resolutions in the Organization of African Unity and the Non-Aligned Movement condemning Zionism and equating it with racism and apartheid during the early 1970s.

This culminated in November 1975 in the United Nations General Assembly's passage of Resolution 3379 by a vote of 72 to 35 (with 32 abstentions), which declared, "Zionism is a form of racism, and racial discrimination". The passage evoked, in the words of American U.N. Ambassador Daniel Patrick Moynihan, "a long mocking applause." U.N. representatives from Libya, Syria, and the PLO made speeches claiming that this resolution negated previous resolutions calling for land-for-peace agreements between Israel and its Arab neighbors. Israel's U.N. representative, Chaim Herzog, interpreted the resolution as an attack on Israel's legitimacy. African U.N. delegates from non-Arab countries also resented the resolution as a distraction from the fight against racism in places like South Africa and Rhodesia.

The decision was revoked on 16 December 1991, when the General Assembly passed Resolution 4686, repealing resolution 3379, by a vote of 111 to 25, with 13 abstentions and 17 delegations absent. Thirteen of the 19 Arab countries, including those engaged in negotiations with Israel, voted against the repeal, and another six were absent. All the ex-communist countries and most of the African countries who had supported Resolution 3379 voted to repeal it.

Islamic perspectives

Some Muslims believe jihad against Israel is justified due to the 1948 Palestinian expulsions. Some view the State of Israel as an intrusion into what sharia defines as Dar al-Islam, a domain they believe should be ruled by Muslims, reflecting its historical conquest in the name of Islam.

In his 1980 book Islam and the Problem of Israel, Palestinian-American philosopher Ismail al-Faruqi argues that from an Islamic perspective Zionism is incompatible with Judaism and has failed to provide security or dignity for Jews. He contends that life in Israel is defined by conflict, militarization, and dependence on international powers, making the state the "greatest failure" of Zionism. Al-Faruqi calls for dismantling Zionism, suggesting that Israeli Jews who renounce it could live as an "ummatic community" within the Muslim world, following Jewish law under rabbinic courts within an Islamic framework.

ISIS claims that we are living in the Islamic End Times and that Jews in Israel are allies of the Dajjal, the Muslim counterpart to the Antichrist. In its view, Muslims must take over historic Palestine before the Dajjal can be defeated.

Left-wing politics

According to New York University social and cultural theorist Susie Linfield, one of the most pressing questions facing the New Left after World War II was "How can we maintain our traditional universalist values in light of the nationalist movements sweeping the formerly colonized world?" During the late 1960s, anti-Zionism became part of a collection of sentiments within far-left politics, including anti-colonialism, anti-capitalism, and anti-Americanism. In this environment, Zionism became a representation of Western power. Philosopher Jean Améry argued that this "Zionism" was merely a straw man redefinition of the term, used to mean world Jewry. The far-left Israeli politician Simha Flapan lamented in 1968, "The socialist world approved the 'Holy War' of the Arabs against Israel in the disguise of a struggle against imperialism. ... Having agreed to the devaluation of its own ideals, [it] was ready to enter an alliance with reactionary and chauvinist appeals to genocide."

In 1969, West German left-wing anti-Zionists placed a bomb in a Jewish Community Center. A series of anti-Zionist aircraft hijackings took place in the 1970s with left-wing groups' support. The most famous of these was the 1976 Air France hijacking perpetrated by the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine in coordination with the Revolutionary Cells. The hijackers released all the non-Jewish hostages without Israeli citizenship, but kept all the Israeli citizens (including those with dual citizenship) and Jewish people for ransom. The separation of Jewish non-Israelis and Israelis from non-Israelis—which, in essence, meant separating out the Jewish passengers generally—shocked many on the German left. To Joschka Fischer, the way the hijackers treated Jews opened his eyes to the violent, Nazi-like implications of anti-Zionism. A few years later, the Revolutionary Cells and another anti-Zionist group attempted to firebomb two German movie theaters that were showing a movie based on the hijacking.

Some secular Jews, particularly socialists and Marxists, continue to oppose the State of Israel on anti-imperialist and human rights grounds. Left-wing Jewish organizations that have opposed Zionism include NION in Canada and Jews Against Zionism in the UK. Some oppose it as a form of nationalism, which they argue is a product of capitalism. The First National Jewish Anti-Zionist Gathering in the US in 2010 and the International Jewish Anti-Zionist Network (IJAN) see anti-Zionism as an integral part of their anti-imperialism. IJAN describes itself as a socialist, antiwar, anti-imperialist organization, and calls for "the dismantling of Israeli apartheid, return of Palestinian refugees, and the ending of the Israeli colonization of historic Palestine".

In the 2000s, leaders of the Respect Party and the Socialist Workers Party of the United Kingdom met with leaders of Hamas and Hezbollah at the Cairo Anti-war Conference. The result of the 2003 conference was a call to oppose "normalization with the Zionist entity".

Christian anti-Zionism

Christian anti-Zionism has appeared in both Protestant and Catholic contexts, with the Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.) criticizing Zionism in political terms and the Catholic Church opposing it on theological grounds.

Haredi Judaism

Most Orthodox religious groups have accepted and actively support the State of Israel, even if they have not adopted "Zionist" ideology. Most religious Zionists hold pro-Israel views from a right-wing viewpoint. The main exceptions are Hasidic groups such as Satmar Hasidim and smaller Hasidic groups. Many Hasidic rabbis oppose the creation of a Jewish state. In 1959, the Satmar Hasidic group's leader, Rabbi Joel Teitelbaum, published the book VaYoel Moshe, which expounds an Orthodox position for anti-Zionism based on a derivation of halacha from an aggadic passage in the Babylonian Talmud's tractate Ketubot 111a.

Allegations of antisemitism

Anti-Zionism spans a range of political, social, and religious views. According to Rony Brauman, a French physician, former president of Médecins sans frontières (Doctors without Borders), and the director of the Humanitarian and Conflict Response Institute (HCRI) at the University of Manchester, there are three kinds of perspectives on Zionism, pro and contra: a non-antisemitic anti-Zionism, an antisemitic anti-Zionism, and an antisemitic Zionism. Shany Mor writes that before 1948 anti-Zionism was not antisemitic, but since 1948 some amount of antisemitism has been at work.

In the early 21st century, it was also claimed that a "new antisemitism" had emerged that was rooted in anti-Zionism. Advocates of this notion argue that much of what purports to be criticism of Israel and Zionism is demonization, and has led to an international resurgence of attacks on Jews and Jewish symbols and an increased acceptance of antisemitic beliefs in public discourse. Critics of the concept argue that equating anti-Zionism with antisemitism is inaccurate, sometimes obscures valid criticism of Israel, and trivializes antisemitism.

Jewish right to a state

Scholars such as Dina Porat and Emanuele Ottolenghi have said that anti-Zionism is antisemitic because it supposedly denies only Jews the right to self-determination that all other nations have. By contrast, Peter Beinart argues that "barely anyone suggests that opposing a Kurdish or Catalan state makes you an anti-Kurdish or anti-Catalan bigot". For example, the 1970 UN Friendly Relations Declaration upheld all people's right to self-determination, but cautioned that did not necessarily imply the creation of independent states.

Edward Said opposed Zionism and instead proposed that a binational Israeli-Palestinian state would grant Jews (as well as Palestinians) the right to self-determination. Jewish philosophers such as Martin Buber and Hannah Arendt conceived Jewish self-determination in the form of a binational state that would give Palestinians and Jews equal rights. The Jerusalem Declaration on Antisemitism, drafted in 2021 by more than 200 scholars of Jewish studies, says that supporting a one-state solution or denying Jews the right to a state is not inherently antisemitic: "It is not antisemitic to support arrangements that accord full equality to all inhabitants 'between the river and the sea,' whether in two states, a binational state, unitary democratic state, federal state, or in whatever form."

The American Jewish Committee has said that denying Jews the right to a state is antisemitic, but also that it is not antisemitic for Palestinians to seek a single binational state. Anti-Defamation League director Jonathan Greenblatt told The New Yorker that denying Jews a state is discriminatory and therefore antisemitic, but when asked whether it is antisemitic for Palestinians to want a one-state solution, he said he was "not talking about that".

Equating and correlating anti-Zionism with antisemitism

As early as 1966, Webster's Third New International Dictionary cited anti-Zionism as one of the core meanings of antisemitism, and a year later, Martin Luther King Jr. was falsely cited as having made the same equation in a letter. In 1972, Abba Eban said that the task of dialogue with gentiles is to prove that there is no distinction between antisemitism and anti-Zionism. In 1978, Fred Halliday, rebuffing the equation of anti-Zionism and antisemitism, wrote that disavowals were constantly required given the frequency of the accusation. In the early 2000s, it became increasingly commonplace for defenders of Israel to regard criticism of Zionism and Israel as tantamount to, interchangeable with, or closely related to antisemitism. In 2007, Tony Judt considered the merging of the two categories in polemics relatively new. A 2003–04 European Monitoring Centre on Racism and Xenophobia report aroused intense controversy over aspects of its provisory definition of antisemitism, which many regarded as ambiguous in blurring distinctions to the point that the two concepts became porous.

Scholars who equate anti-Zionism and antisemitism include Robert S. Wistrich, former head of the Vidal Sassoon International Center for the Study of Antisemitism at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, who argues that since 1948, anti-Zionism and antisemitism have merged and that much contemporary anti-Zionism, particularly forms that compare Zionism and Jews with Hitler and Nazi Germany, has become a form of antisemitism. In 2016, Indiana University's Institute for the Study of Contemporary Antisemitism (ISCA) brought together 70 scholars from 16 countries to discuss the connection between anti-Zionism and antisemitism: For instance, publicly voiced calls for the end of Israel are becoming more prevalent at a time when antisemitism is on the upsurge in Europe and elsewhere. How, if at all, are these phenomena related? What does Zionism signify to its present-day opponents? What motivates them to fixate, often passionately, on what they see as the singular "injustices" and even "evil" of Zionism and Israel? Of what irredeemable sin do they find Israel uniquely guilty? Why, alone among all the world's countries, is Israel judged to be unacceptable as a state and unworthy of a future? No other nation, after all, is targeted for elimination. Why is Israel?

Jean Améry became convinced that anti-Zionism was an updated version of the antisemitism he experienced as a Holocaust survivor. In a 1969 essay, he argues that the anti-Zionists of his time may not have ill intentions against all Jews, but their intentions are irrelevant. Their philosophy has a centuries-old pedigree beginning with the false charge of deicide and culminating in Nazi propaganda. Améry did not expect anti-Zionists of his time to take an unbending pro-Israel stance in the conflict between Israelis and Palestinians; he merely beseeched them to think critically, use common sense, and judge Israel fairly.

In 2016, the International Holocaust Remembrance Alliance adopted a Working Definition of Antisemitism, one that was subsequently officially recognized by various governments, foremost among them the U.S. and France, which endorsed the equation of certain manifestations of anti-Zionism with antisemitism. 127 Jewish intellectuals in the diaspora and Israel formally protested the French resolution equating anti-Zionism with antisemitism, arguing that the definition was injurious to numerous anti-Zionist Jews.

Kenneth L. Marcus, former staff director at the U.S. Commission on Civil Rights, identifies four main views on the relationship between anti-Zionism and antisemitism, at least in North America.(p. 845–846) Marcus also writes that a 2006 study of 5,000 people in Europe concluded that antisemitic views correlate among respondents with hostility to Israel, a result that nevertheless does not mean one cannot be critical of Israeli policies without being antisemitic.

In 2010, Oxford University Press published Anthony Julius's book Trials of the Diaspora: A History of Anti-Semitism in England. In it, Julius claims that the borders between anti-Zionism and antisemitism are porous. He concedes that it is possible to be in conflict with a Jewish ideology without discriminating against Jews, but argues that anti-Zionists cross the line so often as to make the distinction meaningless.

Professor Jeffrey Herf of the University of Maryland, College Park wrote: "One distinctive feature of the secular leftist antagonism to Israel ... was its indignant assertion that it had absolutely nothing to do with antisemitism. Yet the eagerness with which Israel's enemies spread lies about Zionism's racist nature and were willing to compare the Jewish state to Nazi Germany suggested that an element of antisemitism was indeed at work in the international Left as it responded to Israel's victory in June 1967." Anti-Zionists responded to the war's outcome by describing Israel in terms familiar from antisemitic stereotypes.

In December 2023, the US House of Representatives passed a resolution equating antisemitism with anti-Zionism. Palestinian rights advocates called the resolution a "dangerous" move aimed at limiting freedom of expression and diverting attention from the Gaza war.

French President Emmanuel Macron has said on multiple occasions that anti-Zionism is equivalent to antisemitism. He has opposed unilateral recognition of a Palestinian state and the Boycott, Divestment, and Sanctions campaign, while affirming France's responsibility for the Holocaust and commitment to combating antisemitism. Several other world leaders, including Stephen Harper, Manuel Valls, and Pope Francis, have described anti-Zionism in similar terms, framing it as an attack on Jews through the delegitimization of Israel.

View that the two are not interlinked

Several comparative surveys in Europe and the U.S. have failed to find a statistical correlation between criticism of Israeli policies and antisemitism:

• Political scientist Peter Beattie, in an analytical overview of the specialist literature that used polling data in several countries to test the purported link between criticism of Israel and antisemitism, found no necessary empirical correlation, cautioning that assertions of such an inherent connection are calumnious. He concludes, "Most of those critical of Israeli policies are not anti-Semites. Only a fraction of the US population harbours anti-Semitic views, and while logically this fraction would be overrepresented among critics of Israel, the present and prior research indicate that they comprise only a small part. Inaccurate charges of anti-Semitism are not merely calumny, but threaten to debase the term itself and weaken its connection to a very real, and very dangerous, form of prejudice."
• The German sociologist Werner Bergmann's analysis of empirical polling data from Germany concluded that whereas right-wing respondents critical of Israel tended to have views overlapping with classical antisemitism, left-wing interviewees' criticisms of Israel did not involve criticism of Jews.

Former director of the Institute for Jewish Policy Research Antony Lerman argues: The anti-Zionism equals antisemitism argument drains the word antisemitism of any useful meaning. For it means that to count as an antisemite, it is sufficient to hold any view ranging from criticism of the policies of the current Israeli government to denial that Israel has the right to exist as a state, without having to subscribe to any of those things which historians have traditionally regarded as making up an antisemitic worldview: hatred of Jews per se, belief in a worldwide Jewish conspiracy, belief that Jews generated communism and control capitalism, belief that Jews are racially inferior and so on. Moreover, while theoretically allowing that criticism of Israeli governments is legitimate, in practice it virtually proscribes any such thing.

Shifting positions on the Zionist / Anti-Zionist spectrum

Before World War II and the creation of the State of Israel, the debate between Zionists and anti-Zionists was largely an internal Jewish affair; the questions it sought to answer involved Jewish self-definition and the proper use of political power in the Jewish diaspora. Once it became clear to most Jews that all of Zionism's alternatives failed to prevent the Holocaust, the debate largely subsided in the Jewish community. Most prewar Jewish anti-Zionists died in the Holocaust, emigrated to Israel, or became disillusioned by the Soviet Union.

Nevertheless, individual Jews have changed their position on the spectrum of pro- and anti-Zionist views:

• Jacob Israël de Haan made aliyah to Palestine in 1919 as a convinced religious Zionist. Deeply troubled by Zionist attitudes toward Arabs, he began to champion Arab rights while also advocating on behalf of the Orthodox Ashkenazi Agudat Israel / Haredim communities, which maintained excellent relations with Arabs, and with which he felt more spiritually comfortable. His effectiveness with the Mandatory authorities in protesting Zionist claims to represent all Jews while they ignored dissent from Jerusalem's anti-Zionist orthodox communities was resented. He was ridiculed by Zionists, who assassinated him in 1924.
• Isaac Deutscher decidedly opposed Zionism, then altered his judgment in the wake of the Holocaust, to support the foundation of Israel – the creation of a nation-state precisely when they were becoming anachronistic – even at the Palestinians' expense, then wavered at the end between contempt for Arab states' antisemitic demagoguery and odium for Israelis' fanatical triumphalism. In "Prussians of the Middle East", at the end of the Six-Day War, he prophesied that the victory would prove to be a disaster for Israel.
• Noam Chomsky is often said to be an anti-Zionist. He has said that the word "Zionism" has changed connotations since his youth, with the boundaries of what are considered Zionist and anti-Zionist views shifting. The Zionist groups he led as a youth would now be called anti-Zionist because they mostly opposed the idea of a Jewish state. In 1947, in his youth, Chomsky's support for a socialist binational state, in conjunction with his opposition to any semblance of a theocratic system of governance in Israel, was considered well within the mainstream of secular Zionism; by 1987, it put him solidly in the anti-Zionist camp.

Zionists have on occasion interpreted criticism by pro-Zionists in the fold as evidence that the critics are anti-Zionist. One could oppose Zionism's central goal, the formation of a Jewish national state, and yet not be anti-Zionist. This was the case with some pre-state groups, political heirs of the cultural Zionism tradition founded by Ahad Ha'am, such as Brit Shalom and, later, Ihud. Hannah Arendt, who worked for the Jewish Agency for Palestine in the 1930s and was active in facilitating Jewish migration to Palestine from France, devoted much of her thinking in the 1940s to a critique of political Zionism. The Zionism she advocated had a broader definition: Jewish political agency anywhere. When partition was imminent, she came out strongly against the concept of a Jewish, as opposed to binational, state. While writing Eichmann in Jerusalem, she clarified her views: "I am not against Israel on principle, I am against certain important Israeli policies." Arendt took Israel's side in the Arab–Israeli conflict and rejoiced at its victory in the Six-Day War.

Far-right politics

Anti-Zionism has a long history of being supported by individuals and groups associated with Third Position, right-wing, and fascist (or "neo-fascist") political views. A number of militantly racist groups and their leaders are anti-Zionist, such as David Duke, the Ku Klux Klan, and various other Aryan / White-supremacist groups. In these instances, anti-Zionism is usually also deeply antisemitic, and often revolves around conspiracy theories discussed below.

Conspiracy theories{{anchor|Anti-Zionist_conspiracy_theories}}

The Protocols of the Elders of Zion came to be exploited by Arab anti-Zionists, although some have tried to discourage its usage. The Protocols itself makes no reference to Zionism, but after World War I, claims that the book is a record of the Zionist Congress became routine. The first Arabic translation of The Protocols was published in 1925, contemporaneous with a major wave of Jewish immigration to Palestine. A similar conspiracy theory is the belief in a powerful, well-financed "Zionist lobby" that clamps down on criticism of Israel and conceals its crimes. Zionists are able to do this in the United Kingdom, according to Shelby Tucker and Tim Llewellyn, because they are in "control of our media" and "suborned Britain's civil structures, including government, parliament, and the press."

Anti-Zionism is a major component of Holocaust denial. According to one strain of Holocaust denial, Zionists cooperated with the Nazis and are guilty of the crimes committed during the Holocaust. Deniers see Israel as having somehow benefited from what they call "the big lie" that is the Holocaust. Some Holocaust deniers claim that their ideology is motivated by concern for Palestinian rights.

As an alternative to outright denial of the Holocaust, Holocaust inversion acknowledges the Holocaust and uses it to discredit Israel. Following the October 7 attacks, many instances of Holocaust inversion were reported on social media, "with the memory of the Holocaust weaponized." Kingston University genocide studies professor Philip Spencer argues that accusations of genocide against Israel draw on older antisemitic traditions, portraying Jews as both powerful and weak, and serve as a modern form of Holocaust inversion that shifts blame onto Jews and recasts them as responsible for past and present evils.

Notes

Citations

Sources

• {{cite journal | title = The Palestine Question in the Wilson Era
• {{Cite book| title = The Hundred Years' War on Palestine: A History of Settler Colonialism and Resistance, 1917–2017 | author-link = Rashid Khalidi
• {{cite book| title = Palestine: Une terre, deux peuples | orig-year = First published 2000
• {{cite journal | title = An Ottoman Bismarck from Jerusalem: Yusuf Diya' al-Khalidi (1842–1906) | author-link = :de:Alexander Schölch
• {{cite book| chapter = The New Left's Approach to "Zionism" (1969) | author-link = Jean Améry | editor-last = Gallner | editor-first = Marlene
• {{cite journal | title = The British Mandate and the crisis of Palestinian landlessness, 1929–1936 | doi-access = free
• {{cite news| title = Appel de 127 intellectuels juifs aux députés français: " Ne soutenez pas la proposition de résolution assimilant l'antisionisme à l'antisémitisme " | trans-title = Appeal from 127 Jewish intellectuals to French deputies: "Do not support the motion for a resolution equating anti-Zionism with antisemitism" | url-access = subscription
• {{cite book| title = The Holocaust in the Soviet Union
• {{cite journal | title = Setting the Record Straight: : Zionism from the Standpoint of its Jewish Critics | author-link = Stanley Aronowitz
• {{Cite journal | title = When Anti-Zionism Was Jewish: Jewish: Racial Subjectivity and the Anti-Imperialist Literary Left from the Great Depression to the Cold War | url-access = subscription}}
• {{cite book| title = The Subject of Violence: Arendtean Exercises in Understanding
• {{Cite journal | title = Anti-Semitism and opposition to Israeli government policies: the roles of prejudice and information
• {{cite news| title = Debunking the myth that anti-Zionism is anti-Semitic | author-link = Peter Beinart
• {{cite book| title = The Jews of France: A History from Antiquity to the Present
• {{Cite book| chapter = Is there a "New European Anti-Semitism? " Public Opinion and Comparative Empirical Research in Europe | author-link = Werner Bergmann | editor1-last = Rensmann | editor1-first = Lars | editor2-last = Schoeps | editor2-first = Julius H.
• {{Cite journal | title = The Origins and Development of Racial Anti-Semitism in Fascist Italy
• {{cite book| title = From Ambivalence to Hostility: The Arabic Newspaper Filasṭin and Zionism, 1911-1914
• {{cite book| chapter = Millennialism in Contemporary Israeli Politics | editor1-last = Newport | editor1-first = Kenneth G. C. | editor2-last = Gribben | editor2-first = Crawford | chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=h3lsZkm6qxcC&pg=PA70
• {{cite book| title = Zionism in the Age of the Dictators | author-link = Lenni Brenner
• {{cite book| title = Palestine Jewry and the Arab Question, 1917-1925
• {{cite book| title = Isaac and Isaiah: The Covert Punishment of a Cold War Heretic | author-link = David Caute
• {{cite book| title = The New Antisemitism: The Current Crisis and What We Must Do About It | author-link = Phyllis Chesler
• {{Cite book| title = The Chomsky Reader | author-link = Noam Chomsky | editor-last = Peck | editor-first = James | editor-link = James Peck (pacifist)
• {{Cite journal | title = Reflections on a lifetime of engagement with Zionism, the Palestinian Question and American Empire | author-link = Noam Chomsky | editor-last = Rabbani | editor-first = Mouin | editor-link = Mouin Rabbani | url-access = subscription}}
• {{Cite book| title = The Fatal Triangle | edition = 2nd | author-link = Noam Chomsky | orig-year = First published 1999
• {{cite book| title = The Americanization of Zionism, 1897-1948
• {{cite news| title = Essay Linking Liberal Jews and Anti-Semitism Sparks a Furor
• {{cite journal | title = Ideological components in Anglo-Jewish opposition to Zionism before and during the First World War: a restatement
• {{cite book| title = The Jews in America: The Roots, History, and Destiny of American Jews | author-link = Max Dimont
• {{cite book| title = History Of Zionism: A Handbook And Dictionary
• {{cite book| chapter = Antisemitism in Western Europe Today | editor1-last = Marrus | editor1-first = Michael Robert | editor2-last = Penslar | editor2-first = Derek Jonathan | editor3-last = Stein | editor3-first = Janice Gross | chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=Lmym8zUBCKcC&pg=PA65
• {{cite journal | title = Yishuv Zionism: Its Attitude to Nazism and the Third Reich Reconsidered
• {{cite journal | title = The Plight of Soviet Jews
• {{cite book| title = British Pan-Arab Policy, 1915-1922
• {{Cite journal | title = Jacob Israel de Haan in Mandate Palestine: was the victim of the first Zionist political assassination a "Jewish Lawrence of Arabia"?
• {{Cite journal | title = Jews against Zion: Israeli Jewish Anti-Zionism | author-link = Charles Glass
• {{cite news| title = Is Anti-Zionism Anti-Semitism? | author1-link = Jonathan Greenblatt
• {{cite book| chapter = Reading Mendelssohn in Late Ottoman Palestine: An Islamic Theory of Jewish Secularism | editor1-last = Joskowicz | editor1-first = Ari | editor2-last = Katz | editor2-first = Ethan B. | chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=JnoJCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA58
• {{cite web| title = Jewish Anti-Zionist Movements
• {{cite journal | title = Early Communism in Palestine | author-link = Fred Halliday
• {{cite journal | title = Zionist Counterpropaganda: The Case of the American Council for Judaism
• {{Cite magazine| title = 1967: The Global Left and the Six-Day War
• {{cite journal | title = Zionist Eugenics, Mixed Marriage, and the Creation of a 'New Jewish Type'
• {{cite news| title = Hitler Makes Better Impression Than Expected
• {{cite book| chapter = Marxism. Socialim and Antisemitism | editor-last = Katz | editor-first = Steven T. | editor-link = Steven T. Katz | chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=BHtrEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA448
• {{cite journal | title = Why did Hannah Arendt Reject the Partition of Palestine? | url-access = subscription}}
• {{cite journal | title = Zionist hegemony, the settler-colonial conquest of Palestine and the problem with conflict: a critical genealogy of the notion of binary conflict | doi-access = free
• {{cite book| chapter = So What News? Rethinking the 'new antisemitism' in a Global Age | author-link = Jonathan Judaken | editor-last = Judaken | editor-first = Jonathan | chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=haraAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA215
• {{cite book| title = Trials of the Diaspora: A History of Anti-Semitism in England | author-link = Anthony Julius
• {{cite book| title = Bolsheviks and British Jews: The Anglo-Jewish Community, Britain and the Russian Revolution
• {{cite journal | title = Anti-Israel Sentiment Predicts Anti-Semitism in Europe
• {{cite journal | title = Rabbi Joel Teitelbaum, Zionism, and Hungarian Ultra-Orthodoxy
• {{cite journal | title = Rabbi Yoel Teitelbaum—the Satmar Rebbe—and the Rise of Anti-Zionism in American Orthodoxy
• {{cite book| title = The Iron Cage: The Story of the Palestinian Struggle for Statehood | author-link = Rashid Khalidi
• {{Cite news| title = The myth of the new anti-Semitism: reflections on anti-Semitism, anti-Zionism and the importance of making distinctions | author-link = Brian Klug
• {{cite book| title = Zionism: The American Council for Judaism, 1942-1948
• {{cite encyclopedia| title = Diaspora Anti-Zionism | editor-last = Ehrlich | editor-first = M. Avrum
• {{cite journal | title = The Origins and Development of Soviet Anti-Semitism: An Analysis | author-link = William Korey | doi-access = free}}
• {{cite book| title = A History of Palestine: From the Ottoman Conquest to the Founding of the State of Israel | author-link = Gudrun Krämer | orig-year = First published 2008
• {{cite journal | title = Zionism and Its Liberal Critics, 1896-1948 | author-link = Walter Laqueur
• {{cite book| title = A History of Zionism | author-link = Walter Laqueur | orig-year = First published 1978
• {{cite book| title = L'invention de la Terre sainte | trans-title = The Invention of the Holy Land | author-link = Henry Laurens
• {{cite news| title = Jews attacking Jews | author-link = Antony Lerman
• {{cite book| title = Whatever Happened to Antisemitism?: Redefinition and the Myth of the 'Collective Jew' | author-link = Antony Lerman
• {{cite book| title = Britain's Naval and Political Reaction to the Illegal Immigration of Jews to Palestine, 1945-1949
• {{cite book| title = The Lions' Den: Zionism and the Left From Hannah Arendt to Noam Chomsky
• {{Cite book| title = Antisemitism: Here and Now | author-link = Deborah Lipstadt
• {{cite book| title = Globalising Hatred: The New Antisemitism | author-link = Denis MacShane
• {{cite book| title = The Definition of Anti-Semitism | author-link = Kenneth L. Marcus
• {{Cite book| title = Christian Attitudes Towards the State of Israel
• {{cite journal | title = Can There Be a Principled Anti-Zionism ? On the Nexus between Anti-Historicism and Anti-Zionism in Modern Jewish Thought | author-link = David N. Myers | url-access = subscription}}
• {{Cite journal | title = The Presbyterian Church and Zionism Unsettled: Its Antecedents, and Its Antisemitic Legacy | doi-access = free
• {{Cite book| title = Comparing Religions Through Law: Judaism and Islam | author1-link = Jacob Neusner
• {{cite news| title = Anti-Zionism is anti-semitism | author-link = Emanuele Ottolenghi
• {{cite report| title = Report of the Court of Inquiry convened by Order of H.E. The High Commissioner and Commnander-in-Chief FO 371/5121 | editor1-last = Palin | editor1-first = Philip Charles | editor1-link = Philip Palin | editor2-last = Wildblood | editor2-first = Edward Harold | editor3-last = Edwards | editor3-first = Christopher Vaughan
• {{cite journal | title = American Jewry and the Holocaust: From Biltmore to the American Jewish Conference
• {{cite journal | title = Anti-Semites on Zionism: From Indifference to Obsession | author-link = Derek Penslar | url-access = subscription}}
• {{cite book| chapter = Antisemites on Zionism: From Indifference to Obsession | author-link = Derek Penslar | editor-last = Herf | editor-first = Jeffrey | editor-link = Jeffrey Herf | chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=CYXfAQAAQBAJ&pg=PT19
• {{cite book| chapter = Antisemitism and Anti-Zionism: A Historical Approach | author-link = Derek Penslar | editor1-last = Penslar | editor1-first = Derek J. | editor1-link = Derek Penslar | editor2-last = Marrus | editor2-first = Michael R. | editor2-link = Michael Marrus | editor3-last = Stein | editor3-first = Janice Gross | editor3-link = Janice Stein | chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=Lmym8zUBCKcC&pg=PA80
• {{cite news| title = Church of Scotland: Jews Do Not Have a Right to the Land of Israel | author-link = Anshel Pfeffer
• {{cite journal | title = "La Nostra Bandiera": l'adesione agli "ideali" fascisti di un gruppo di ebrei italiani | trans-title = "La Nostra Bandiera": the adherence to the fascist "ideals" of a group of Italian Jews
• {{cite journal | title = The Secret Contacts: Zionism and Nazi Germany, 1933-1941
• {{cite book| chapter = Anti-Zionism as Antisemitism | author-link = Dina Porat | editor-last = Katz | editor-first = Steven T. | editor-link = Steven T. Katz | chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=BHtrEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA448
• {{cite news| title = Presbyterians Reject Church Group's anti-Zionist Study Guide
• {{cite news| title = Presbyterian Church vote declaring Israel an apartheid state upsets Jewish groups
• {{cite news| title = Reactions to Hitlerism
• {{cite book| title = The Global History of the Balfour Declaration: Declared Nation
• {{cite book| title = 'A Senseless, Squalid War': Voices from Palestine; 1890s to 1948
• {{cite book| title = The Balfour Declaration: The Origins of the Arab-Israeli Conflict
• {{cite book| chapter = The Philo-Semitic Reaction: The Treason of the Intellectuals | editor1-last = Badiou | editor1-first = Alain | editor1-link = Alain Badiou | editor2-last = Hazan | editor2-first = Eric | editor3-last = Segré | editor3-first = Ivan | chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=h7lvDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA232
• {{cite journal | title = Anti-Semitism and Zionism | author-link = Anita Shapira
• {{cite book| chapter = Israeli Perceptions of Anti-Semitism and Anti-Zionism | author-link = Anita Shapira | editor-last = Herf | editor-first = Jeffrey | editor-link = Jeffrey Herf | chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=NYbfAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA231
• {{cite book| title = Israel and the European Left: Between Solidarity and Delegitimization | author-link = Colin Shindler
• {{cite book| title = Reporting Palestine-Israel in British Newspapers: An Analysis of British Newspapers
• {{cite journal | title = The Bund Abroad in the Postwar Jewish World | url-access = subscription}}
• {{Cite book| chapter = The Christian Churches on Israel and the Jews | author-link = Norman Solomon (rabbi) | editor-last = Wistrich | editor-first = Robert S. | editor-link = Robert S. Wistrich | chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=mcSwCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA143
• {{cite book| chapter = The Response of the Jews of the Arab World to Antisemitism in the Modern Era | author-link = Norman Stillman | editor-last = Reinharz | editor-first = Jehudea | editor-link = Jehuda Reinharz | chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=X-OdCihZD0cC&pg=PA357
• {{cite journal | title = Anatomy of the 1936–39 Revolt: Images of the Body in Political Cartoons of Mandatory Palestine | url-access = subscription}}
• {{cite journal | title = When 'Oom' Became 'Shmoom': How the Most Enduring Hatred, Anti-Semitism, Became Infused with the Most Hated Hatred, Racism, to Israel's Dismay and to the UN's Detriment | author-link = Gil Troy | url-access = subscription}}
• {{Cite book| chapter = Two Paths to Zion: Magnes and Stephen S. Wise | author-link = Melvin Urofsky | editor1-last = Brinner | editor1-first = William M. | editor2-last = Rischin | editor2-first = Moses | chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=i54ZYhwkT68C&pg=PA97
• {{cite book| chapter = Adoption of the Protocols in the Arab discouyrse on the Arab-Israeli conflict, Zionism, and the Jews | editor-last = Webman | editor-first = Esther | chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=xWusAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA186
• {{cite journal | title = Zionism and Its Religious Critics in fin-de-siècle Vienna | author-link = Robert S. Wistrich
• {{cite journal | title = Zionism and Its Jewish "Assimilationist" Critics (1897-1948) | author-link = Robert S. Wistrich
• {{cite journal | title = Anti-Zionism and Anti-Semitism | author-link = Robert S. Wistrich
• {{cite book| title = From Ambivalence to Betrayal: The Left, the Jews, and Israel | author-link = Robert S. Wistrich
• {{Cite book| chapter = Historical Reflections on Contemporary Antisemitism | author-link = Steven Zipperstein | editor1-last = Penslar | editor1-first = Derek J. | editor1-link = Derek J. Penslar | editor2-last = Marrus | editor2-first = Michael | editor2-link = Michael Marrus | editor3-last = Stein | editor3-first = Janice Gross | editor3-link = Janice Gross Stein | chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=Lmym8zUBCKcC&pg=RA1-PA60
• {{Cite book| chapter = German Jewish Orthodoxy's Attitude toward Zionism | editor1-last = Almog | editor1-first = Shmuel | editor2-last = Reinharz | editor2-first = Jehuda | editor2-link = Jehuda Reinharz | editor3-last = Shapira | editor3-first = Anita | editor3-link = Anita Shapira | chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=mS6oW4TTuwkC&pg=PA111

References

1. Mor, Shany. (Summer 2019). "On Three Anti-Zionisms". [[Israel Studies]].
2. Said, Edward W.. (1979). "The Question of Palestine". Vintage Books.
3. Eghbariah, Rabea. (May 2024). "Toward Nakba as a Legal Concept". [[Columbia Law Review]].
4. Darweish, Marwan. (2023-05-11). "The Nakba: how the Palestinians were expelled from Israel".
5. Shlaim, Avi. (August 1995). "The Debate about 1948". International Journal of Middle East Studies.
6. "Congress Is Absolutely Wrong to Equate Anti-Zionism With Antisemitism".
7. "There Is No Right to a State".
8. Crabapple, Molly. (2025-08-01). "Here where we live is our country: The story of the Jewish Labor Bund". Critical Research on Religion.
9. (2003). "The Emergence Of Modern Jewish Politics: Bundism And Zionism In Eastern Europe". University of Pittsburgh Press.
10. Inbari, Motti. (2016). "Jewish radical ultra-orthodoxy confronts modernity, Zionism and women's equality". Cambridge University Press.
11. Marglin, Jessica. "Tetouan". Brill.
12. Ojeda-Mata, Maite. (December 2020). "The Sephardim of North Morocco, Zionism and Illegal Emigration to Israel Through the Spanish Cities of Ceuta and Melilla". Contemporary Jewry.
13. Laskier, Michael M.. (September 1983). "The Evolution of Zionist Activity in the Jewish Communities of Morocco, Tunisia and Algeria: 1897–1947". Studies in Zionism.
14. Laskier, Michael M.. (March 1985). "Zionism and the Jewish communities of Morocco: 1956–1962". Studies in Zionism.
15. "L'Union Marocaine (Casablanca)".
16. Boum, Aomar. (March 2010). "From 'Little Jerusalems' to the Promised Land: Zionism, Moroccan nationalism, and rural Jewish emigration". The Journal of North African Studies.
17. Tsur, Yaron. (1998). "Zionism and religion". University Press of New England.
18. Beinin, Joel. (2023-11-10). "The Dispersion of Egyptian Jewry: Culture, Politics. and the Formation of Modern Diaspora". University of California Press.
19. Beinin, Joel. (1990). "Was the red flag flying there? Marxist politics and the Arab-Israeli conflict in Egypt and Israel, 1948 - 1965". Univ. of California Press.
20. Zvi, Yehuda. "Zionism Among Sephardi/Mizraḥi Jewry".
21. "MonBalagan - 1899 : 1er mars - Lettre de Youssouf Diya 'al-Khalidi à Herzl : première opposition au Sionisme".
22. Mendes, P.. (20 May 2014). "Jews and the Left: The Rise and Fall of a Political Alliance". [[Springer Science+Business Media.
23. "The Forgotten History of the Jewish, Anti-Zionist Left".
24. Borgen Gjerde, Åsmund. (8 August 2018). "The logic of anti-Zionism: Soviet elites in the aftermath of the Six-Day War". Patterns of Prejudice.
25. Blumenthal, Helaine. (2009). ''Communism on Trial: The Slansky Affair and Anti-Semitism in Post-WWII Europe.'' UC Berkeley: Berkeley Program in Soviet and Post-Soviet Studies. ([https://escholarship.org/uc/item/4wr2g4kf Read online])
26. Helfant, Audrey L. (1991). [https://ces.fas.harvard.edu/uploads/files/Working-Papers-Archives/CEE_17.pdf The Slánksý trial reconsidered]. Minda de Gunzburg Center for European Studies, Harvard University.
27. Ahlbäck, Anders, & Kasper Braskén (eds) ''Anti-fascism and ethnic minorities: history and memory in Central and Eastern Europe''. Routledge Studies in Fascism and the far right. London ; New York, NY: Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group, 2024.
28. Szabó, Róbert Győri. (2 January 2025). "Anti-Zionism in the show trials in Rákosi era Hungary (1948–1953)". [[Journal of Modern Jewish Studies]].
29. CIA. (21 September 2022). "Trial of Zionist Leaders in Romania".
30. "Prisoners of Zion from Bălţi, Romania".
31. Stola, Dariusz. (2006-03-01). "Anti-Zionism as a Multipurpose Policy Instrument: The Anti-Zionist Campaign in Poland, 1967–1968". [[Journal of Israeli History]].
32. [[Dariusz Stola]]. "[http://web.ceu.hu/jewishstudies/pdf/02_stola.pdf "The Anti-Zionist Campaign in Poland of 1967–1968."] {{Webarchive. link. (2020-06-07 The American Jewish Committee research grant. See: D. Stola, Fighting against the Shadows (reprint), in Robert Blobaum, ed., ''Antisemitism and Its Opponents in Modern Poland''. [[Cornell University Press]], 2005.)
33. Zawadzka, Anna. (31 March 2025). "Czas i pole widzenia. Antysyjonizm 1967–1968 i 2023–2024: początki perspektywy porównawczej". Adeptus.
34. [[Dariusz Stola]], Kampania antysyjonistyczna w Polsce 1967 - 1968 [The Anti-Zionist Campaign in Poland 1967–1968], pp. 213, 414, published by Instytut Studiów Politycznych [[Polish Academy of Sciences. Polskiej Akademii Nauk]], Warsaw 2000, {{ISBN. 83-86759-91-7
35. Tabarovsky, Izabella. [https://www.tabletmag.com/sections/arts-letters/articles/mahmoud-abbas-soviet-dissertation "Mahmoud Abbas’ Dissertation."] ''[[Tablet Magazine]]''. 17 January 2023. 23 January 2023.
36. "United Nations General Assembly Resolution 46/86 voting record". United Nations.
37. [[Jonathan C. Brown]]. "Misquoting Muhammad". [[Oneworld publications]].
38. (22 March 2023). "What Drives Israel-Iran Hostility? How Might it be Resolved?".
39. (1997-10-23). "Sheik Vows to Continue the Hamas Holy War Against Israel". [[New York Times]].
40. Sagi Polka. (2019). "Shaykh Yusuf Al-Qaradawi: Spiritual Mentor of Wasati Salafism".
41. (2012). "Routledge Handbook of Political Islam". [[Taylor & Francis]].
42. Ismail Raji al-Faruqi. (1980). "Islam and the Problem of Israel". Islamic Council of Europe.
43. Al-Faruqi, Isma'il R.. (2003). "Islam and the Problem of Israel". The Other Press.
44. Rickenbacher, Daniel. "The Centrality of Antisemitism in the Islamic State's Ideology and its Connection to Anti-Shiism."[https://www.google.com/books/edition/The_Return_of_Religious_Antisemitism/PKIeEAAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=anti-zionist+islamic&pg=PA97&printsec=frontcover ''The Return of Religious Antisemitism'']. Edited by Gunther Jikeli. ''Google Books''. 13 August 2025.
45. Volkov, Shulamit. (2006). "Readjusting Cultural Codes: Reflections on Anti-Semitism and Anti-Zionism". [[The Journal of Israeli History]].
46. Santing, Kiki. [https://www.proquest.com/scholarly-journals/conspiracy-theories-muslim-brotherhood/docview/2633048457/se-2 "Conspiracy Theories and Muslim Brotherhood Antisemitism under Sadat."] ''Religions'', vol. 13, no. 2, 2022, pp. 143. ProQuest, doi:https://doi.org/10.3390/rel13020143.
47. Simcha Flapan, ''The Arab-Israeli War of 1967: A Reply to Isaac Deutscher'' (Tel Aviv: International Department of the United Workers Party—MAPAM, 1968), 15, Qtd. in Linfield, p. 184
48. (22 February 2018). "Film on 1976 plane hijacking illuminates Israeli-Palestinian conflict: director". [[Reuters]].
49. (2016-06-27). "Entebbe: A mother's week of 'indescribable fear'". [[BBC News]].
50. David, Saul. [https://books.google.com/books?id=QeEWCAAAQBAJ&dq=%22Wilfried+B%C3%B6se%22+anti-zionism&pg=PT465 "Operation Thunderbolt: Flight 139 and the Raid on Entebbe Airport, the Most ...."] ''Google Books''. 7 November 2022.
51. Sedlmaier, Alexander. [https://books.google.com/books?id=QnSvBAAAQBAJ&dq=victory+at+entebbe+bombs+cinema+dusseldorf+germany&pg=PA243 "Consumption and Violence: Radical Protest in Cold-War West Germany."] ''Google Books''. 7 November 2022.
52. Ebbrecht-Hartmann, Tobias. "The Missing Scene: Entebbe, ''Holocaust'', and Echoes from the German Past." In [https://books.google.com/books?id=J_ArCwAAQBAJ "Jahrbuch des Simon-Dubnow-Instituts."] ''Google Books''. 7 November 2022.
53. "Not In Our Name ... Jewish voices opposing Zionism".
54. "Jews Against Zionism".
55. "The First National Jewish Anti-Zionist Gathering". Jews Confront Apartheid.
56. "International Jewish Anti-Zionist Network".
57. "Charter of the International Jewish anti-Zionist Network". International Jewish anti-Zionist Network.
58. Smith, Jackie, et al. [https://books.google.com/books?id=3iLvCgAAQBAJ&dq=Respect+Party+Socialist+Workers+Party+Hamas+Hezbollah+Cairo+Anti-war+Conference&pg=PT130 "Handbook on World Social Forum Activism."] ''Google Books''. 21 October 2022.
59. [http://www.mdsweb.jp/international/cairo_sec/cairo2_dec.html Second Cairo Declaration (14 December 2003).] ''M D S''. 14 December 2003. 30 June 2022.
60. (7 May 2009). "Vatican-Israel Relations".
61. David Neuhaus SH. (2020-10-27). "People of Israel, Land of Israel, State of Israel".
62. "Notes on the Correct Way to Present the Jews and Judaism in Preaching and Catechesis in the Roman Catholic Church".
63. (26 January 1904). "THEODOR HERZL: Audience with Pope Pius X (1904)". Council of Centers on Jewish-Christian Relations.
64. "The Vatican, American Catholics and the Struggle for Palestine, 1917-1958: A Study of Cold War Roman Catholic Transnationalism". Western University.
65. Ravitzky, Aviezer. [https://www.myjewishlearning.com/article/ultra-orthodox-anti-zionist/ "Ultra-Orthodox @ Anti-Zionist."] ''My Jewish Learning''. 30 July 2025.
66. [[Pierre-André Taguieff. Taguieff, Pierre-André]]. ''Rising From the Muck: The New Anti-Semitism in Europe''. Ivan R. Dee, 2004.
67. {{harvnb. Porat. 2022
68. {{harvnb. Ottolenghi. 2003: "Zionism comprises a belief that Jews are a nation, and as such are entitled to self-determination as all other nations are."
69. "Debunking the myth that anti-Zionism is antisemitic". [[The Guardian]].
70. (10 January 1999). "The One-State Solution". [[New York Times]].
71. Kroll-Zeldin, Oren. (December 2023). "Jewish Self-Determination beyond Zionism: Lessons from Hannah Arendt and Other Pariahs. By Jonathan Graubart. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2023. 218p. 104.50 cloth.". [[Perspectives on Politics]].
72. (2024-08-30). "The two-state solution: An illusion?".
73. Rosenfeld, Arno. (25 March 2021). "Leading Jewish scholars say BDS, one-state solution are not antisemitic". [[The Forward]].
74. "The Jerusalem Declaration on Antisemitism".
75. [https://www.ajc.org/sites/default/files/pdf/2020-10/AntiZionism%20and%20Antisemitism.pdf "AntiZionism and Antisemitism."] ''AJC''. 16 June 2022.
76. (27 March 2023). "5 Common Questions About the IHRA Definition of Antisemitism Answered".
77. Rosenfeld. Foreword. ''Essays on Antisemitism, Anti-Zionism, and the Left'' by Améry, Indiana UP, 2021, pp.ix-xv.
78. [https://www.holocaustremembrance.com/resources/working-definitions-charters/working-definition-antisemitism "What is antisemitism?"] International Holocaust Remembrance Alliance. 24 October 2022.
79. Marcus, Kenneth L.. (2007). "Anti-Zionism as Racism: Campus Anti-Semitism and the Civil Rights Act of 1964". William & Mary Bill of Rights Journal.
80. [[Jacob Rader Marcus]], ''The Jew in the American World: A Source Book'', pp. 199–203. Wayne State University Press, 1996. {{ISBN. 0-8143-2548-3
81. Miller Rubens, Heather. (2014). "Julius, Anthony. Trials of the Diaspora: A History of Anti-Semitism in England. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012. Xii+827 pp. $27.95 (Paper)". The Journal of Religion.
82. Freedland, Jonathan. (2010-09-09). "The Living Lie".
83. Demirjian, Karoun. (2023-12-05). "House Declares Anti-Zionism Is Antisemitism, Dividing Democrats". [[The New York Times]].
84. (6 December 2023). "'Anti-Zionism is antisemitism,' US House asserts in 'dangerous' resolution". [[Al Jazeera English.
85. Hershco, Tsilla. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/resrep16902.pdf "Macron's Presidency Heralds Nothing New in Israel-France Relations."] ''JSTOR''. 12 December 2017. 22 September 2025.
86. (21 September 2025). "Macron calls U.S. Ambassador Charles Kushner's criticism of France "unacceptable" for diplomat - CBS News".
87. Rosenfeld, Alvin H. "Introduction." [https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=EYuFDwAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PP1&dq=Macron+anti-Zionism&ots=XgpgIIHzOb&sig=jsvsuvuIxVSudskEI2fK4kk-r_g#v=onepage&q=Macron%20anti-Zionism&f=false "Anti-Zionism and Antisemitism: The Dynamics of Delegitimization."] ''Google Books''. 2019. 22 September 2025.
88. Elizabeth Young-Bruehl, ''Hannah Arendt: For Love of the World'' (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1982), 361, Qtd. in {{harvnb. Linfield. 2019
89. [https://web.archive.org/web/20031205153139/http://yaleglobal.yale.edu/display.article?id=2791 "Antiglobalism's Jewish Problem"] in Rosenbaum, Ron (ed). ''Those who forget the past: The Question of Anti-Semitism'', Random House 2004, p. 272.
90. "A new wave of anti-Semitism in Europe". Socialist Review.

91. Duke ... was quickly becoming a racist celebrity. He had become the self-styled grand wizard of not only the Ku Klux Klan, but of most racist-minded people. Through his personality he would elevate the discussion of racism and anti-Zionism from whispers in back rooms to the forefront of international news.

    Zatarain, Michael. [https://archive.org/details/daviddukeevoluti00zata/page/219 "David Duke, Evolution of a Klansman."] ''Google Books''. p.219.
92. Sunshine, Spencer. [http://www.politicalresearch.org/2014/02/13/20-on-the-right-in-occupy/#sthash.lkzvYFJ9.dpbs "20 on the Right in Occupy."] {{Webarchive. link. (27 June 2019 13 February 2014.)
93. Finkelstein, Norman H.. (2024). "Saying No to Hate". [[University of Nebraska Press]].
94. Klaff, Leslie. [https://shura.shu.ac.uk/34523/3/Klaff-TheThreeBestChaptersOnHolocaustInversion%28AM%29.pdf "The three best chapters on holocaust inversion."] ''Sheffield Halam University''. 2024.