Anti-Europeanism

Usage

United Kingdom

In the United Kingdom, "Europhobia" refers to negative attitudes towards mainland Europe, either in the context of anti-German sentiment or of anti-Catholicism, or, more recently, of Euroscepticism in the United Kingdom.

United States

American exceptionalism in the United States has long led to criticism of European domestic policy (such as the size of the welfare state in European countries) and foreign policy (such as European countries that did not support the 2003 US invasion of Iraq).

Under the presidency of Donald Trump, critiques of NATO, particularly its funding, became a prominent issue. Although NATO includes non-European members such as the United States, Canada, and Turkey, the alliance is often perceived, especially by Trump and many Americans, as primarily a European defense treaty aimed at safeguarding European nations.

Trump’s main criticism centered on the disproportionate financial burden shouldered by the United States, which effectively funds the majority of NATO’s military expenditures. He argued that many NATO member states fail to meet their commitment to allocate at least 2% of their GDP to defense spending, a benchmark agreed upon by all members.

This critique gained renewed attention during the Russian invasion of Ukraine, which exposed the underfunding of military capabilities in several NATO countries. Their inability to immediately provide substantial military aid to Ukraine highlighted longstanding concerns about reliance on U.S. defense resources. Many American critics view NATO as a vestige of the Cold War, where the U.S. continues to bear the cost of protecting Europe, particularly against threats from Russia, without equitable contributions from other member states.

In Europe

In European social science, anti-Europeanism is usually defined as one of three major types of negative attitudes, alongside Eurocriticism and Euroscepticism..Its defining characteristic is the rejection of European integration and European unity. This distinguishes it from Euroscepticism, which describes mistrust towards the EU integration project, its institutions and its politics{{cite journal Anti-Europeanism can be observed on both sides of the political spectrum{{cite journal but has, in recent literature, been associated mainly with far right and nationalist discourse{{cite book |editor-last1=Guiso |editor-first1=Andrea |editor-last2=Pasquinucci |editor-first2=Daniele |editor-last=Guiso |editor-first=Andrea

Anti-Europeanism and ideology

Anti-Europeanism does not belong to any specific side of the political spectrum.. On the left of the political spectrum, anti-Europeanism is usually an opposition to the European project’s capitalist and globalist nature. This was especially true in the 1960’s and 1970’s, in the opposition with the EEC. For example, the EEC and the integration project were given the name capitalist club by left-wing parties across Europe. The EU and entities alike were truly seen as a tool for liberalism and globalization which weakened national protection for workers.

On the right side of the political spectrum, anti-Europeanism can also be observed. Firstly, concerns about sovereignty, such as control over the economy or immigration can lead to anti-European attitudes On the far right, there are also concerns over the countries’ national identity and culture{{cite book |editor-last1=Guiso |editor-first1=Andrea |editor-last2=Pasquinucci |editor-first2=Daniele

The anti-European discourse can also be associated with populism, where far-right politicians promote the idea of a duality between the EU’s “corrupt elites” and the “true, hard-working people”. Anti-Europeanism can also be observed alongside discourses on nativism, the idea that individuals indigenous to a land should be given greater social protection and have their interests promoted over those of immigrants. Indeed, in this view, the EU is seen as detrimental to the country’s autonomy over its borders.Hungarian Prime Minister Viktor Orbán is an example of a politician using anti-elitist discourse coherent with anti-Europeanism{{cite journal

Anti-Europeanism in Europe is sometimes justified through the framing of the European Union as a detimentral to democracy or sovereignty, particularly on issues relating do decisions made in the European ParliamentGuiso, A. (2024). European integration and demogratic legitimacy: A historical assessment of the institutional and economic roots of populist Euroscepticism. In A. Guiso & D. Pasquinucci (Eds), Anti-Europeanism, populism and European integration in a historical perspective (Vol. 1–1 online resource (xi, 235 pages): illustrations.). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003372219 For example, concern for sovereignty is considered to be one of the main reasons behind the "Leave" vote during the 2016 Brexit referendum.Carl, N., Dennison, J., & Evans, G. (2019). European but not European enough: An explanation for Brexit. European Union Politics, 20(2), 282–304. https://doi.org/10.1177/1465116518802361

Anti-Europeanism and political concerns

Anti-Europeanism can be defended through political arguments, namely national sovereignty{{cite book |editor-last1=Guiso |editor-first1=Andrea |editor-last2=Pasquinucci |editor-first2=Daniele |editor-last1=Guiso |editor-first1=Andrea |editor-last2=Pasquinucci |editor-first2=Daniele . Concern for sovereignty is considered to be one of the main reasons behind the "Leave" vote during the 2016 Brexit referendum.

Anti-Europeanism and cultural concerns

In other instances, Anti-Europeanism is explained through cultural arguments. Those arguments show concern for the impact of European integration on the country's national identity, culture and values. In some instances, anti-Europeanism is related to nativism and xenophobia{{cite journal Many European national parties argue that the EU constitutes a "replacing power", seeking to replace the ethnic majority through immigration (see the Great Replacement conspiracy theory). Some far-right discourse also perceives the EU as a threat to Europe's historical Christian culture. In other instances, the integration is seen as an homogenization that erases local specificities .In some countries, the EU and its values are seen as too "liberal", and incompatible with the country's national identity, therefore making integration impossible..

References

References

1. "Europhobia definition and meaning".
2. (2020). "Anti-Europeanism: Critical Perspectives Towards the European Union". Springer International Publishing.
3. Varsori, A. (2024). Euroscepticism from a historical viewpoint. In A. Guiso & D. Pasquinucci (Eds), Anti-Europeanism, populism and European integration in a historical perspective (Vol. 1–1 online resource (xi, 235 pages): illustrations.). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003372219
4. R. Miles in: Avril Horner (ed.), ''European Gothic: A Spirited Exchange 1760-1960'' (2002), [https://books.google.com/books?id=ofIS6ZAdsZAC&pg=PA84] Thérèse Remus, ''Germanophobia, Europhobia, Xenophobia – About Stereotypes in Anglo-German Relations'' (2012)
5. Wheatcroft, Geoffrey. (June 21, 2016). "Europhobia: a very British problem". [[The Guardian]].
6. [http://cadmus.eui.eu/bitstream/handle/1814/2767/04_25.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y Anti-Europeanism and Euroscepticism in the United States], Patrick Chamorel No 25, EUI-RSCAS Working Papers from European University Institute (EUI), Robert Schuman Centre of Advanced Studies (RSCAS) 2004
7. Elsner (2005), McPherson (2003)
8. Lexington (2007), Ash (2003) Pipes (2006)
9. Shapiro, Jeremy. (March 18, 2019). "Why America? The U.S. Role in European Defense and the European Mind". Panthéon-Sorbonne University.
10. (February 20, 2024). "A closer look at Trump's years of criticizing NATO defense spending". ABC.
11. (January 17, 2025). "Europe's security wake-up call: EU and NATO gear up for big bang in defence". ENR with AFP and partner agencies.
12. Krauss, Melvyn. (July 30, 1998). "NATO Expansion Is Just Welfare for Europe". Stanford University.