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9th-century Arabic work on algebra
9th-century Arabic work on algebra
| Field | Value |
|---|---|
| name | The Concise Book of Calculation by Restoration and Balancing |
| image | Image-Al-Kitāb al-muḫtaṣar fī ḥisāb al-ğabr wa-l-muqābala.jpg |
| alt | title page in Arabic writing and calligraphy; hand-drawn ornamental frame; parchment is gilded and stained from age |
| caption | Title page, 9th century |
| author | Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi |
| title_orig | كتاب المختصر في حساب الجبر والمقابلة |
| orig_lang_code | ar |
| illustrator | Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi |
| country | Abbasid Caliphate |
| language | Arabic |
| subject | Algebra |
| pub_date | 820 |
| native_wikisource | الكتاب المختصر في حساب الجبر والمقابلة |
| wikisource | The Compendious Book on Calculation by Completion and Balancing |
The Concise Book of Calculation by Restoration and Balancing (, ar; or ), commonly abbreviated Al-Jabr or Algebra (Arabic: الجبر), is an Arabic-language mathematical treatise on algebra written in Baghdad around 820 by the Persian polymath Al-Khwarizmi. It was a landmark work in the history of mathematics, with its title being the ultimate etymology of the word "algebra" itself, later borrowed into Medieval Latin as algebrāica.
Al-Jabr provided an exhaustive account of solving for the positive roots of polynomial equations up to the second degree. It was the first text to teach elementary algebra, and the first to teach algebra for its own sake. It also introduced the fundamental concept of "reduction" and "balancing" (which the term al-jabr originally referred to), the transposition of subtracted terms to the other side of an equation, i.e. the cancellation of like terms on opposite sides of the equation. The mathematics historian Victor J. Katz regards Al-Jabr as the first true algebra text that is still extant.{{efn|"The first true algebra text which is still extant is the work on al-jabr and al-muqabala by Mohammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi, written in Baghdad around 825."{{cite journal
Several authors have also published texts under this name, including Abu Hanifa Dinawari, Abu Kamil, Abū Muḥammad al-ʿAdlī, Abū Yūsuf al-Miṣṣīṣī, 'Abd al-Hamīd ibn Turk, Sind ibn ʿAlī, Sahl ibn Bišr, and Šarafaddīn al-Ṭūsī.
The book was a compilation and extension of known rules for solving quadratic equations and for some other problems, and considered to be the foundation of algebra, establishing it as an independent discipline. The word algebra is derived from the name of one of the basic operations with equations described in this book, following its Latin translation by Robert of Chester.
The book classifies quadratic equations to one of the six basic types and provides algebraic and geometric methods to solve the basic ones. Historian Carl Boyer notes the following regarding the lack of modern abstract notations in the book:
Thus the equations are verbally described in terms of "squares" (what would today be "x2"), "roots" (what would today be "x") and "numbers" ("constants": ordinary spelled out numbers, like 'forty-two'). The six types, with modern notations, are:
Islamic mathematicians, unlike the Hindus, did not deal with negative numbers at all; hence an equation like bx + c = 0 does not appear in the classification, because it has no positive solutions if all the coefficients are positive. Similarly equation types 4, 5 and 6, which look equivalent to the modern eye, were distinguished because the coefficients must all be positive.{{cite book
Al-Jabr ("forcing", "restoring") operation is moving a deficient quantity from one side of the equation to the other side. In an al-Khwarizmi's example (in modern notation), "x2 = 40x − 4x2" is transformed by al-Jabr into "5x2 = 40x". Repeated application of this rule eliminates negative quantities from calculations.
Al-Muqābala (المقابله, "balancing" or "corresponding") means subtraction of the same positive quantity from both sides: "x2 + 5 = 40x + 4x2" is turned into "5 = 40x + 3x2". Repeated application of this rule makes quantities of each type ("square"/"root"/"number") appear in the equation at most once, which helps to see that there are only 6 basic solvable types of the problem, when restricted to positive coefficients and solutions.
Subsequent parts of the book do not rely on solving quadratic equations.
The second chapter of the book catalogues methods of finding area and volume. These include approximations of pi (π), given three ways, as , , and . This latter approximation, equalling 3.1416, earlier appeared in the Indian Āryabhaṭīya (499 CE).
Al-Khwārizmī explicates the Jewish calendar and the 19-year cycle described by the convergence of lunar months and solar years.
About half of the book deals with Islamic rules of inheritance, which are complex and require skill in first-order algebraic equations.{{cite encyclopedia|encyclopedia=Companion Encyclopedia of the History and Philosophy of the Mathematical Sciences|volume=1|editor=I. Grattan-Guinness
R. Rashed and Angela Armstrong write:
J. J. O'Connor and E. F. Robertson wrote in the MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive:
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