Acid-citrate-dextrose

Formulation

Two solutions (A and B) are defined by the United States Pharmacopeia. They have the following properties:

To make use:

Dissolve the ingredients and mix. Filter until clear.

History

Blood storage

ACD was invented by Loutit et al. in 1943 for preserving whole blood. They found that the mixture offers better red blood cell survival than the then state-of-the-art, MRC 1940 (trisodium citrate plus glucose). The old solution also caramelize when autoclaved, while the new one does not due to higher acidity. As a result, blood can now be stored for much longer, up to 21 days.

ACD was developed into CPD (citrate-phosphate-dextrose) in 1957, a version with phosphate added intended to reduce phosphate leakage from red blood cells. It does not improve shelf life appreciably, but patient recovery is improved. A later improvement was CPD with adenine (CPDA-1), which boosted RBC survival to five weeks when combined with plastic bags. CPD, in combination with adenine-mannitol additives such as SAGM, is the current blood bank preservative as of 2012.

Although human blood is generally stored using newer formulations, the uptake of such technology is slower in veterinary medicine. From experimentation on horse and donkey blood, it does seem that the newer human-blood storage technogies also translate to improvements in animal blood storage.

Apheresis

ACD is first described for use in apheresis in 1977. Citrate, typically in the form of ACD solutions, is now preferred over heparin because it is cheap, safe, and cleared out of the system faster. Use of ACD is universal for centrifuge-based systems, while membrane systems may use either. Heparin is still used for high-volume procedures, as infusing too much citrate with the returned blood can cause toxicity from the chelating action, mainly hypocalcemia.

References

References

1. (2019-09-15). "ORDER OF DRAW FOR MULTIPLE TUBE COLLECTIONS". Michigan Medicine Laboratories.
2. United States Pharmacopeia 26, 2002, pp 158.
3. (16 December 1943). "Citric Acid-Sodium Citrate-Glucose Mixtures for Blood Storage". Quarterly Journal of Experimental Physiology and Cognate Medical Sciences.
4. (2012). "Red blood cell storage in SAGM and AS3: a comparison through the membrane two-dimensional electrophoresis proteome". Blood Transfusion.
5. (28 November 1968). "Citrate-Phosphate-Dextrose: An Improved Anticoagulant Preservative Solution for Human Blood". International Society of Blood Transfusion.
6. (September 2004). "Comparison of 4 blood storage methods in a protocol for equine pre-operative autologous donation.". Veterinary Surgery.
7. (8 February 2021). "Assessment of Donkey (''Equus asinus africanus)'' Whole Blood Stored in CPDA-1 and CPD/SAG-M Blood Bags.". Biology.
8. (August 1977). "Laboratory and clinical effects of the infusion of ACD solution during plateletpheresis.". Vox Sanguinis.
9. (2012). "Anticoagulation techniques in apheresis: from heparin to citrate and beyond.". Journal of Clinical Apheresis.