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600-ship Navy

United States Cold War–era defense plan

The 600-ship Navy was a strategic plan of the United States Navy during the 1980s to rebuild its fleet after cutbacks that followed the end of the Vietnam War. The plan, which originated with Republican leaders, was an important campaign plank of Ronald Reagan in the 1980 presidential election, who advocated a larger military and strategic confrontation with the Soviet Union.

The number of ships peaked at 594 in 1987, before declining sharply after the end of the Cold War in 1989–1992.

The program included:

Recommissioning the s
Keeping older ships in service longer
A large new construction program
Stepping up production of s

The idea was supported by John F. Lehman, who became Reagan's Secretary of the Navy, and Caspar Weinberger, Reagan's Secretary of Defense.

Background

The idea behind the 600-ship Navy can be traced back to the Vietnam War. During the war, the armed services rapidly expanded to meet the demands placed on them.

The Soviet Union, which had been supporting North Vietnam, began staging their naval vessels from former U.S. ports in South Vietnam. Building on this gain, Soviet vessels began to sail in all seven seas with increased vigor and even ventured into the Gulf of Mexico. Soviet forces also stepped up infantry, armor, and air force deployments in Eastern Europe.

Reagan plan

It was against this backdrop in 1980 that the United States began an election year. President Reagan continued this in 1984, releasing a campaign commercial "Bear," which played on the use of the bear as a national symbol of Russia in order to promote higher vigilance and defense expenditures against the Soviet Union.

The overseas strategic retaliation arm was strengthened and the development of new weaponry like the B-1B bomber, the Bradley fighting vehicle, and the Abrams tank was completed and they were put into production.

Lehman attempted to "front-load" the program, by committing the Navy to the building program, but in the end the funds were not available and it fell short.

Ships and weapons systems deployed during the plan

The Navy saw the largest benefit of the rebuilding. Under the Reagan administration, the first of the ballistic missile submarines were completed. This class was the largest submarine ever built in the U.S. The ship carried 24 Trident I nuclear-capable missiles, each one with a 4000 mi range. Construction of the Nimitz class of supercarriers and attack submarines were dramatically stepped up. The revolutionary new Aegis Combat System was installed on the upcoming ships, production of which was also stepped up. Several aircraft carriers were put through Service Life Extension Programs (SLEPs) aimed at keeping them in service longer. The Iowa-class battleships, built in the 1940s, were all recommissioned and refitted with RGM-84 Harpoon, BGM-109 Tomahawk, and Phalanx CIWS system capabilities, plus their armor plating would be more resilient against anti-ship missiles. The first Harpoons, Tomahawks, and AGM-88 HARM missiles all debuted on the navy's ships. Naval aviation was stepped up with the introduction of the F/A-18 Hornet, along with improved versions of the EA-6 Prowler electronic countermeasure aircraft, the A-6 Intruder, and the F-14 Tomcat. In addition, the nation's strategic retaliatory arm was strengthened with advanced B-1B bombers and deploying Pershing II theater missiles to Europe. The initiative also included deployment of Abrams main battle tanks and Bradley armored fighting vehicles. U.S. Navy unclassified miscellaneous ships, auxiliary ships, and yard ships are not included in the ship count.

Build-up by year

Aircraft carriers

Class of ships	Image	1980	1981	1982	1983	1984	1985	1986	1987	1988	1989	1990
Nimitz class	[[File:USS Nimitz (CVN-68).jpg	150px]]	2	2	3	3	3	3	4	4	4	5	5
	[[File:USS Enterprise (CVN-65).jpg	150px]]	1	1	1	1	1	1	1	1	1	1	1
Kitty Hawk class	[[File:USS Constellation (CV-64) aerial Battle E.jpg	150px]]	4	4	4	4	4	4	4	4	4	4	4
Forrestal class	[[File:USS Forrestal (CV-59) underway at sea in 1987 (NH 97657-KN).jpg	150px]]	4	4	4	4	4	4	4	4	4	4	4
Midway class	[[File:USS Midway (CV-41) bow view c1983.JPEG	150px]]	2	2	2	2	2	2	2	2	2	2	2
Essex class	[[File:USS Lexington (CVS-16) underway in the 1960s.JPEG	150px]]	1	1	1	1	1	1	1	1	1	1	1
Total	Ships	14	14	15	15	15	15	16	16	16	17	17

Battleships

Class of ships	Image	1980	1981	1982	1983	1984	1985	1986	1987	1988	1989	1990
	[[File:Uss iowa bb-61 pr.jpg	150px]]	0	0	0	1	2	2	3	3	4	4	4
Total	Ships	0	0	0	1	2	2	3	3	4	4	4

Cruisers

Class of ships	Image	1980	1981	1982	1983	1984	1985	1986	1987	1988	1989	1990
	[[File:US Navy 100304-N-6006S-046 The Ticonderoga-class guided-missile cruiser USS Bunker Hill (CG 52) transits in the Atlantic Ocean.jpg	150px]]	0	0	0	1	2	3	5	9	11	15	16
	[[File:USS Virginia (CGN-38) elevated starboard view.jpg	150px]]	4	4	4	4	4	4	4	4	4	4	4
	[[File:USS California (CGN-36).JPG	150px]]	2	2	2	2	2	2	2	2	2	2	2
	[[File:USS Truxtun (DLGN-35) underway off Point Loma, California (USA), circa in the 1970s.jpg	150px]]	1	1	1	1	1	1	1	1	1	1	1
	[[File:USS Belknap (CG-26).jpg	150px]]	9	9	9	9	9	9	9	9	9	9	9
	[[File:USS Leahy (CG-16) at sea off San Diego, in May 1978.jpg	150px]]	9	9	9	9	9	9	9	9	9	9	9
	[[File:USS Long Beach (CGN-9) underway at sea, circa in the 1960s.jpg	150px]]	1	1	1	1	1	1	1	1	1	1	1
Total	Ships	26	26	26	27	28	29	31	35	37	41	42

Destroyers

Class of ships	Image	1980	1981	1982	1983	1984	1985	1986	1987	1988	1989	1990
	[[File:USS Chandler (DDG-996).jpg	150px]]	0	3	4	4	4	4	4	4	4	4	4
	[[File:020625-N-1056B-004 The U.S. Navy destroyer USS Fife (DD 991).jpg	150px]]	30	30	30	31	31	31	31	31	31	31	31
	[[File:USS Charles F Adams (DDG-2) underway c1973.jpg	150px]]	23	23	23	23	23	23	23	23	23	20	10
	[[File:USS Farragut DDG-37.jpg	150px]]	10	10	10	10	10	10	10	10	10	8	7
	[[File:USS Barry.jpg	150px]]	18	18	7	1	1	1	1	1	0	0	0
	[[File:USS Orleck (DD-886) underway off Point Loma, in 1964.jpg	150px]]	14	7	2	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0
Total	Ships	95	91	76	69	69	69	69	69	68	63	52

Frigates

Class of ships	Image	1980	1981	1982	1983	1984	1985	1986	1987	1988	1989	1990
	[[File:USS Hawes FFG-53.jpg	150px]]	8	17	26	37	45	50	52	54	54	55	55
	[[File:USS Robert E. Peary (FF-1073) San Francisco.jpg	150px]]	46	46	46	46	46	46	46	46	46	46	46
	[[File:USS Schofield (FFG-3) stbd beam view.jpg	150px]]	6	6	6	6	6	6	6	6	1	0	0
	[[File:USS Davidson (FF-1045) underway on 1 July 1986 (6421920).jpg	150px]]	11	11	11	11	11	11	11	11	5	1	0
	[[File:USS Bronstein (FF-1037), port beam view.jpg	150px]]	2	2	2	2	2	2	2	2	2	2	2
Total	Ships	73	82	91	102	110	115	117	119	108	104	103

Years	1980	1981	1982	1983	1984	1985	1986	1987	1988	1989	1990
Total major combatants active	208	213	208	214	224	230	236	242	232	229	218

Amphibious assault ship

Class of ships	Image	1980	1981	1982	1983	1984	1985	1986	1987	1988	1989	1990
	[[File:USS Wasp (LHD 1).jpg	150px]]	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	1	1
	[[File:USS Saipan LHA-2 amphibious assault ship.jpg	150px]]	5	5	5	5	5	5	5	5	5	5	5
	[[File:Port bow view of USS Iwo Jima (LPH-2) 1979.jpg	150px]]	7	7	7	7	7	7	7	7	7	7	7
Total	Ships	12	12	12	12	12	12	12	12	12	13	13

Dock landing ship

Class of ships	Image	1980	1981	1982	1983	1984	1985	1986	1987	1988	1989	1990
	[[File:US Navy 050117-F-4884R-015 he amphibious dock landing ship USS Fort McHenry (LSD 43) makes a wide turn prior to conducting helicopter operations off the coast of the island of Sumatra, Indonesia.jpg	150px]]	0	0	0	0	0	1	2	3	3	4	5
	[[File:US Navy 030117-N-2069B-002 USS Anchorage (LSD 36) departs San Diego Bay.jpg	150px]]	5	5	5	5	5	5	5	5	5	5	5
	[[File:USS Thomaston;10122801.jpg	150px]]	8	8	8	6	4	3	3	3	3	1	0
	[[File:USS Spiegel Grove LSD-32.jpg	150px]]	1	1	1	1	1	1	1	1	1	0	0
Total	Ships	14	14	14	12	10	10	11	12	12	10	10

Amphibious transport dock

Class of ships	Image	1980	1981	1982	1983	1984	1985	1986	1987	1988	1989	1990
	[[File:USS Duluth (LPD 6).jpg	150px]]	12	12	12	12	12	12	12	12	12	12	12
	[[File:Ussvancouver.jpg	150px]]	3	3	3	3	3	3	3	3	3	3	3
Total	Ships	15	15	15	15	15	15	15	15	15	15	15

Amphibious cargo ship

Class of ships	Image	1980	1981	1982	1983	1984	1985	1986	1987	1988	1989	1990
	[[File:USS Charleston (LKA-113) underway 1988.JPEG	150px]]	5	5	5	5	5	5	5	5	5	5	5
	[[File:USS Tulare (AKA-112) underway off San Francisco, California (USA), on 8 December 1955 (6931994).jpg	150px]]	1	1	1	1	1	1	0	0	0	0	0
Total	Ships	6	6	6	6	6	6	5	5	5	5	5

Tank landing ship

Class of ships	Image	1980	1981	1982	1983	1984	1985	1986	1987	1988	1989	1990
	[[File:USS Newport (LST-1179) at Rota 1982.jpg	150px]]	20	20	20	20	20	20	20	20	20	20	20
General Frank S. Besson class	[[File:LSV-7 SSGT Robert T Kuroda.jpg	150px]]	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	2	4	4	4
Total	Ships	20	20	20	20	20	20	20	22	24	24	24

Years	1980	1981	1982	1983	1984	1985	1986	1987	1988	1989	1990
Total amphibious active	67	67	67	65	63	63	63	66	68	67	67

Command Ship

Class of ships	Image	1980	1981	1982	1983	1984	1985	1986	1987	1988	1989	1990
Blue Ridge class	[[File:USS Mount Whitney;10012001.jpg	150px]]	2	2	2	2	2	2	2	2	2	2	2
Total	Ships	2	2	2	2	2	2	2	2	2	2	2

Hospital ship

Class of ships	Image	1980	1981	1982	1983	1984	1985	1986	1987	1988	1989	1990
	[[File:090411-A-1786S-088 - USNS Comfort (T-AH-20) in Hati.jpg	150px]]	0	0	0	0	0	0	1	2	2	2	2
Total	Ships	0	0	0	0	0	0	1	2	2	2	2

Minesweeper

Class of ships	Image	1980	1981	1982	1983	1984	1985	1986	1987	1988	1989	1990
	[[File:USS Avenger MCM-1.jpg	150px]]	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	1	1	3	3
	[[File:USS Constant (AM-427).jpg	150px]]	19	19	19	19	19	19	19	19	19	18	14
Total	Ships	19	19	19	19	19	19	19	20	20	21	17

Patrol ships

Class of ships	Image	1980	1981	1982	1983	1984	1985	1986	1987	1988	1989	1990
	[[File:PHM-1.jpg	150px]]	1	1	2	6	6	6	6	6	6	6	6
	[[File:HS Tolmi (P229) mail transfer.jpg	150px]]	9	9	9	9	6	6	6	4	4	4	4
Total	Ships	10	10	11	15	12	12	12	10	10	10	10

Replenishment oiler

Class of ships	Image	1980	1981	1982	1983	1984	1985	1986	1987	1988	1989	1990
	[[File:DN-SC-87-06989.jpg	150px]]	0	0	0	0	0	0	1	4	6	8	9
	[[File:USS Cimarron (AO-177) off Apra Harbor pt 1983.jpeg	150px]]	0	3	4	5	5	5	5	5	5	5	5
	[[File:USS Wichita (AOR-1) underway in the Indian Ocean on 3 December 1985 (6419167).jpg	150px]]	7	7	7	7	7	7	7	7	7	7	7
Total	Ships	7	10	11	12	12	12	13	16	18	20	21

Tanker

Class of ships	Image	1980	1981	1982	1983	1984	1985	1986	1987	1988	1989	1990
	[[File:USNS Gianella.jpg	150px]]	0	0	0	0	0	0	1	1	1	1	1
SS class	[[File:SS Chesapeake (AOT-5084).jpg	150px]]	1	2	2	2	2	2	2	3	3	3	3
Total	Ships	1	2	2	2	2	2	3	4	4	4	4

Ammunition ship

Class of ships	Image	1980	1981	1982	1983	1984	1985	1986	1987	1988	1989	1990
	[[File:Kilauea2.jpg	150px]]	8	8	8	8	8	8	8	8	8	8	8
	[[File:USS Pyro (AE-24) underway in 1980.JPEG	150px]]	3	3	3	3	3	3	3	3	3	3	3
Total	Ships	11	11	11	11	11	11	11	11	11	11	11

Combat stores ship

Class of ships	Image	1980	1981	1982	1983	1984	1985	1986	1987	1988	1989	1990
	[[File:USNS Niagara Falls T-AFS-3.jpg	150px]]	7	7	7	7	7	7	7	7	7	7	7
Sirius class	[[File:Spica(T-AFS-9)-01.jpg	150px]]	0	2	2	3	3	3	3	3	3	3	3
Total	Ships	7	9	9	10	10	10	10	10	10	10	10

Fast combat support ships

Class of ships	Image	1980	1981	1982	1983	1984	1985	1986	1987	1988	1989	1990
	[[File:USS Camden AOE-2 050217-N-6074Y-108 crop.jpg	150px]]	4	4	4	4	4	4	4	4	4	4	4
Total	Ships	4	4	4	4	4	4	4	4	4	4	4

Roll-on/roll-off

Class of ships	Image	1980	1981	1982	1983	1984	1985	1986	1987	1988	1989	1990
	[[File:USNS Regulus.jpg	150px]]	0	0	0	0	8	8	8	8	8	8	8
Cape Island class	[[File:SS_Cape_Island_MSC.jpg	150px]]	4	4	4	4	4	4	4	4	4	4	4
	[[File:Cape_Ducato.JPEG	150px]]	0	0	0	0	0	5	5	5	5	5	5
	[[File:Cape_May_underway.jpg	150px]]	0	0	0	0	0	0	3	3	3	3	3
Total	Ships	7	9	9	10	10	10	10	10	10	10	10

Destroyer tender

Class of ships	Image	1980	1981	1982	1983	1984	1985	1986	1987	1988	1989	1990
	[[File:USS Shenandoah (AD-44) underway on 15 February 1984 (6391384).jpg	150px]]	1	2	3	4	4	4	4	4	4	4	4
	[[File:USS Puget Sound AD-38 01.jpg	150px]]	2	2	2	2	2	2	2	2	2	2	2
	[[File:USS Bryce Canyon (AD-36) underway, off Oahu, Hawaii (USA), 6 February 1978 (NH 92723-KN).jpg	150px]]	1	1	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0
Total	Ships	4	5	5	6	6	6	6	6	6	6	6

Submarine tender

Class of ships	Image	1980	1981	1982	1983	1984	1985	1986	1987	1988	1989	1990
	[[File:USS McKee (AS-41) 001.jpg	150px]]	2	3	3	3	3	3	3	3	3	3	3
	[[File:USS L.Y. Spear (AS-36) undwerway in 1983.JPEG	150px]]	1	1	1	1	1	1	1	1	1	1	1
Total	Ships	3	4	4	4	4	4	4	4	4	4	4

Crane ship

Class of ships	Image	1980	1981	1982	1983	1984	1985	1986	1987	1988	1989	1990
	[[File:Equality State.jpg	150px]]	0	0	0	0	2	2	3	5	5	7	7
	[[File:SS Cornhuskerstate.jpg	150px]]	1	1	1	1	2	2	3	3	3	3	3
Total	Ships	1	1	1	1	4	4	6	8	8	10	10

Heavy-lift ship

Class of ships	Image	1980	1981	1982	1983	1984	1985	1986	1987	1988	1989	1990
American Cormoranthttps://fas.org/man/dod-101/sys/ship/tak-2062.htm	[[File:US Navy 041130-N-0000B-001 The MV American Cormorant submerged fifteen feet below the waterline to allow U.S. Army watercraft to float on in the port of Southampton, England.jpg	150px]]	0	0	0	0	0	1	1	1	1	1	1
Total	Ships	0	0	0	0	0	1	1	1	1	1	1

Cable ship

Class of ships	Image	1980	1981	1982	1983	1984	1985	1986	1987	1988	1989	1990
	[[File:USNS Zeus.jpg	150px]]	0	0	0	0	1	1	1	1	1	1	1
Total	Ships	0	0	0	0	1	1	1	1	1	1	1

Rescue and salvage ship

Class of ships	Image	1980	1981	1982	1983	1984	1985	1986	1987	1988	1989	1990
Safeguard class	[[File:Uss safeguard.jpg	150px]]	0	0	0	1	1	2	4	4	4	4	4
Pigeon class	[[File:USS Ortolan (ASR-22).jpg	150px]]	2	2	2	2	2	2	2	2	2	2	2
Bolster class	[[File:Opportune (ARS-41).jpg	150px]]	6	6	6	6	6	6	6	6	6	6	6
Total	Ships	8	8	8	9	9	10	12	12	12	12	12

Tracking ship

Class of ships	Image	1980	1981	1982	1983	1984	1985	1986	1987	1988	1989	1990
	[[File:USNS Observation Island (T-AGM-23).jpg	150px]]	1	1	1	1	1	1	1	1	1	1	1
USS Range Sentinel (AGM-22)	[[File:USNS Range Sentinel T-AGM-22 DNSC8510327.jpg	150px]]	1	1	1	1	1	1	1	1	1	1	1
USNS Vanguard (T-AG-194)	[[File:USNS Vanguard.jpg	150px]]	1	1	1	1	1	1	1	1	1	1	1
Total	Ships	3	3	3	3	3	3	3	3	3	3	3

Ocean surveillance ship

Class of ships	Image	1980	1981	1982	1983	1984	1985	1986	1987	1988	1989	1990
	[[File:USNS Stalwart.jpg	150px]]	0	0	0	0	3	7	9	11	13	17	18
Total	Ships	0	0	0	0	3	7	9	11	13	17	18

Oceanographic research ship

Class of ships	Image	1980	1981	1982	1983	1984	1985	1986	1987	1988	1989	1990
	[[File:USNS Hayes (T-AG-195).jpg	150px]]	1	1	1	1	1	1	1	1	1	1	1
Total	Ships	1	1	1	1	1	1	1	1	1	1	1

Years	1980	1981	1982	1983	1984	1985	1986	1987	1988	1989	1990
Total auxiliary active	88	98	100	109	113	119	128	136	140	149	147

Years	1980	1981	1982	1983	1984	1985	1986	1987	1988	1989	1990
Total surface active	363	378	375	388	400	412	427	444	440	445	432

Attack submarines

Class of ships	Image	1980	1981	1982	1983	1984	1985	1986	1987	1988	1989	1990
	[[File:USS Asheville (SSN-758)2.jpg	150px]]	10	16	20	25	29	33	35	37	39	42	44
	[[File:USS Gurnard (SSN-662) underway off San Diego on 1 February 1991 (6467986).jpg	150px]]	37	37	37	37	37	37	37	37	37	37	37
	[[File:USSGreenlingSS614.JPG	150px]]	13	13	13	13	13	13	13	13	12	10	8
	[[File:USS Shark SSN 591.jpg	150px]]	5	5	5	5	5	5	4	4	3	3	0
	[[File:USS Bonefish;0858205.jpg	150px]]	3	3	3	3	3	3	3	3	2	1	0
	[[File:USS Swordfish;0857905.jpg	150px]]	4	4	4	4	3	3	2	2	1	0	0
	[[File:USS Seawolf (SSN-575).jpg	150px]]	1	1	1	1	1	1	0	0	0	0	0
	[[File:USS Darter (SS-576).jpg	150px]]	1	1	1	1	1	1	1	1	1	1	0
	[[File:USS Gudgeon ;0856710.jpg	150px]]	3	3	3	2	2	2	1	0	0	0	0
Total	Subs	77	83	87	91	94	98	96	97	95	94	89

Ballistic missile submarines

Class of ships	Image	1980	1981	1982	1983	1984	1985	1986	1987	1988	1989	1990
	[[File:USS Florida (SSGN-728).jpg	150px]]	0	1	2	3	5	6	8	8	9	10	11
	[[File:USS Will Rogers;0865905.jpg	150px]]	12	12	12	12	12	12	12	12	12	12	12
	[[File:USS Daniel Boone SSBN-629.jpg	150px]]	10	10	10	10	10	10	9	9	9	8	8
	[[File:USS Lafayette SSBN-616.jpg	150px]]	9	9	9	9	9	9	8	8	8	6	3
	[[File:USSEthanAllenSSBN-608.jpg	150px]]	5	5	5	3	3	2	2	2	2	2	2
	[[File:USS George Washington (SSBN-598).jpg	150px]]	5	4	3	2	1	0	0	0	0	0	0
Total	Subs	41	41	41	39	40	39	39	39	40	38	36

Years	1980	1981	1982	1983	1984	1985	1986	1987	1988	1989	1990
Total submarines active	118	124	128	130	134	137	135	136	135	132	125

Years	1980	1981	1982	1983	1984	1985	1986	1987	1988	1989	1990
Total active fleet	481	502	503	518	534	549	562	580	575	577	557

End of the plan

Eventually political pressure to reduce the national budget deficit resulted in Congress reversing itself and passing a series of declining defense budgets beginning in 1986. Weinberger clashed with Congress over the cuts, resigning in late 1987, and was succeeded by Frank Carlucci.{{cite magazine |url=https://content.time.com/time/subscriber/article/0,33009,967709,00.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071227150947/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,967709,00.html |archive-date=27 December 2007

Lehman's successor as Navy Secretary, Jim Webb, remained a fierce proponent of the expanded fleet, and disagreed with Carlucci over how to cut the Navy budget in line with other services. Webb resigned rather than endorse Carlucci's cut of 16 frigates. As revealed in The Reagan Diaries, Reagan reflected about Webb's resignation on 22 February 1988: "Present Sec. Webb resigned over budget cuts. I don't think Navy was sorry to see him go."

Following the dissolution of the Soviet Union in the early 1990s and the lack of a perceived threat against the United States, several of the Reagan administration's policies and plans, such as the "600-ship Navy", were scaled back or abandoned. U.S. bases across Europe and North America were slowly decommissioned and closed, others were mothballed through the Base Realignment and Closure (BRAC) process. In the Navy, this resulted in the retirement of several older carriers, the decommissioning of all four of the Iowa-class battleships and the cancellation of the remaining s.

References

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(22 June 1989). "Command of the Seas: Building the 600 Ship Navy". [[Naval War College]].
"US Ship Force Levels 1886-present".
(5 October 1981). "AROUND THE NATION; Soviet Naval Vessels Found in Gulf of Mexico". [[The New York Times]].
Marcus, Alan J.. (1 December 1985). "Manning the 600-ship Navy". Office of Naval Research ([[United States Department of the Navy.
Angier, Bruce N.. (1 December 1984). "Manning the 600-Ship Navy: Analysis of Force Structure and Compensation Options for Navy Program Planning". Office of Naval Research ([[United States Department of the Navy.
Tarpgaard, Peter T.. (1 March 1982). "Building a 600-ship Navy: Costs, Timing, and Alternative Approaches". [[United States Congress]].
(1 September 1985). "Future Budget Requirements for the 600-Ship Navy". [[United States Congress]].
Charles, Daniel. (3 April 1987). "The Navy After Lehman: Rough Sailing Ahead?: Navy Secretary John Lehman presided over a major buildup of the fleet but critics charge that there may not be enough money to equip and operate all those new ships; dissent did not flourish in Lehman's Navy". [[American Association for the Advancement of Science]].
Mearsheimer, John J.. (22 September 1986). "A Strategic Misstep: The Maritime Strategy and Deterrence in Europe". [[Belfer Center for Science and International Affairs]]/[[MIT Press]].
(7 March 1988). "The Navy: The Secretary Jumps Ship".
Reagan, Ronald. (2009). "[[The Reagan Diaries]]". [[HarperCollins]].
Antle III, W. James. (3 April 2015). "The outsider who could beat Hillary". Deccan Chronicle Holdings Limited.
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Spinney, Chuck. (6 December 2012). "Business as Usual Inside Obama's Pentagon".

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