1878 St. Croix labor riot

Events leading up to the riot

During this period, St. Croix was controlled by white Danish colonials, however, a large portion of the population consisted of both enslaved Indigenous people, who were descendants of Arawak and Carib Indians, and slaves imported from Africa by the settlers. The Indigenous population, though marginalized and displaced by colonial practices, played a crucial role in shaping the cultural landscape of St. Croix. The integration between both indigenous and colonial cultures was not merely a sign of oppression but also showcased resiliency and identity formation for the enslaved peoples, showcasing how both people of African descent and the colonized native born people of St. Croix resisted complete creolization. This is especially important to recognize due to the fact that the opposition towards fully adapting colonial ideals directly relates to also resisting the hierarchal makeup of the region. Throughout the pre-emancipation period, Danish colonials enforced these frameworks by using "space to reinforce the social order, make claims to identity, and impose meanings on the cultural categories that people create" which heavily influenced the hierarchal structures that became embedded in the frameworks of not only the government, but the country as a whole. St. Croix was a place that was entirely built on the basis of slave labor and racial inequalities, serving as a microcosm of colonial exploitation where the intersections of race, labor, and power perpetuated systemic oppression.

However, in July 1848, the slaves of the Danish West Indies staged a large-scale uprising against the oppressive government. This was mainly influenced by both the Haitian Revolution and a revolution in nearby Martinique, where in both, enslaved peoples gained freedom from France. This revolt was led by a man called John Gottlieb, better known by fellow enslaved individuals as "Buddahoe", who marched with thousands of enslaved people to Frederiksted, demanding immediate freedom. These efforts culminated in then Governor-General Peter von Scholten announcing emancipation, declaring all people in the Danish West Indies as free. For many laborers this freedom was short-lived, as plantation owners, who sought to maintain control, quickly began devising new regulations. Governor-General Hansen held a conference in fear that the newly freed people would not work or would want better wages. This resulted in the Labor Act, effective January 1849. The now free laborers were forced by law to sign contracts that bound them and their families to the same plantations where they had previously worked, causing the now free laborers to become debt peon slaves again in all but name, in turn reinforcing a 'slave-master relationship'. These contracts enforced the already present racial hierarchies put in place in the Virgin Islands, where the free people of color navigated a complex landscape that mitigated their ability to gain social and political standing. This system stems from the inherent marginalization of the Indigenous people by Danish settler colonials, and the existence of a category of free indigenous people disrupted the system created in which "white was virtually a synonym for freedom, power, and privilege."

The Labor Act also created fixed salaries and labor conditions for all plantation workers, eliminating any opportunities for bargaining. As plantation work became increasingly unattractive, many workers left the island to seek better opportunities. In response, the government made it harder for workers to leave the island, such as charges fees for passports and demanded health certificates. In the fall of 1878, workers demands for increased wages and labor conditioners were once again denied and increasingly strict laws for traveling were imposed.

Contract Day

In October 1878 during Contract Day, an annual holiday, laborers gathered in Frederiksted to demand higher wages and better working conditions. Although it was initially a peaceful gathering, the crowd began to become violent after rumors circulated, including a rumor that a laborer had been hospitalized, but was mistreated and died in police custody. The rioters threw stones and the Danish soldiers retaliated with gunfire. As violence escalated, the soldiers barricaded themselves inside a fort. Unable to scale the gates to access the fort, the rioters turned their focus on the town and began looting it, using torches to burn many buildings and plantations.

On October 4, British, French, and American warships arrived and offered to help stop the riot. But Governor Garde was confident he and his men had the situation under control and turned the ships away, though some soldiers borrowed guns from the British ships. The next day, Garde ordered all laborers to return to their plantations or be declared "rebels". Laborers were forbidden to leave their plantations without written permission from the plantation owner. By mid-October, the riot had died down and peace was returning to the islands.

Queens of the Fireburn

Among the prominent leaders of the riot were three women, Mary "Queen Mary" Thomas, "Queen Agnes", and "Queen Mathilda." The three were sentenced to prison, and served their terms in Denmark. A folk song from the 1880s, "Queen Mary", was written about Mary's role in the riot.

In 2004, historian Wayne James uncovered Danish documents, including photographs of the prison where the women served their sentences, a storybook they wrote, and "a host of other historically significant documents and photos." According to him, these documents reveal the existence of a fourth "queen", Susanna Abramsen, who was known as "Bottom Belly."

Mary Thomas is often regarded as the most prominent leader in the rebellion and an icon to this day. At the time of Fireburn, Mary was in her forties and had three children. Prior to the revolt, Mary had controversial sentences for theft and child mistreatment which historians suggest were used by authorities as a sort of oppression for anyone that opposed their rule.

While not as famous as Queen Mary, Queen Agnes played a prominent role in rallying the workers, particularly in the southern part of the island. The youngest of the queens, Queen Mathilda was only 21 at the time of the rebellion. Along with Queen Agnes, she performed rituals and celebrations during the uprising. Although not known about until recent research brought her name to light, Queen Susanna was another leading figure in the revolt. She was given the nickname "Bottom Belly" which symbolized her strength and resilience.

Aftermath

The riots caused great destruction to property on the islands. 879 acres were burned, and the damage caused was estimated at hundreds of thousands of dollars. Direct casualties of the riot include the deaths of 60 black laborers and two soldiers, and 14 women who died in an explosion. In addition, 12 laborers were condemned to death and hanged on October 5, 1878. All 4 of the queens were also incarcerated and imprisoned for their involvement in the riot. A year after Fireburn, in October 1879, new contracts were written that would supposedly increase laborers' wages, but the contracts were weighted in favor of the plantation owners.

The three most significant results of the riots were that the labor contracts would no longer be enforced, laborers could buy land, and labor unions were formed.

Legacy

The folk song titled "Queen Mary" is still popularly sung by schoolchildren and musicians across the Virgin Islands, encompassing the lyrics "don't ask me nothing at all, just pass me the match and oil".

In 2018 artists Jeannette Ehlers and La Vaughn Belle unveiled a 7 m statue of Mary Thomas, titled "I am Queen Mary," where she is seen seated on a throne with a cane knife and torch. Its installation in Copenhagen made the statue Denmark's first public monument to a black woman. Many aspects of it come from her Afro-Crucian background, where the statues base was built from coral cuts made by enslaved people from St. Croix and her face being formed from facial scans of the artists. The statue itself was the first public monument in Denmark and was created to be used as a form of remembrance of the Fireburn and what happened in St. Croix.

Angela Golden Bryan published a book in 2018 titled: Fireburn The Screenplay, which pays homage to the laborers who participated in the uprising as well as raises awareness of historical injustices.

Sayeeda Carter is a longtime educator and cultural organizer in the U.S. Virgin Islands. She is the stepdaughter of noted Virgin Islands historian and activist Mario Moorhead, a key figure in the United Caribbean Association (UCA), a community-centered organization that has held space for cultural, political, and educational work in Frederiksted for decades. The UCA building, located near Fort Frederik, has served as a vital hub for grassroots engagement and historical remembrance.

For many years, members of UCA have organized the annual Fireburn Commemoration Re-enactments, honoring the 1878 labor revolt led by Queen Mary, Queen Agnes, and Queen Mathilda. These reenactments have been a cornerstone of cultural memory in the territory, offering the community a way to actively preserve and honor its history.

Raised within this rich tradition of cultural activism and communal storytelling, Carter has extended that legacy through her career in the Virgin Islands public school system. With over three decades of service as an educator, she annually directs a student production of 1878*: Queen Mary an’ Dem*, a play written by Richard Schrader. Performed by her drama students, the play brings the Fireburn to life for new generations, blending performance, education, and historical reflection into a living tribute to Virgin Islands resistance and resilience. File:ThreeQueensSTT.jpg|The Three Queens Fountain at Blackbeard's Castle, St. Thomas honors Queens Mary, Agnes, and Mathilda File:T-shirt with Fireburn motif, 2015.jpg|T-shirt with Fireburn and Three Queens motif, St. Croix 2015

References

References

1. Dixon, Euella. (September 12, 2020). "The Fireburn Labor Riot, Virgin Islands (1878)". BlackPast.
2. "Virgin Islands - Caribbean, Colonization, Trade {{!}} Britannica".
3. Lenik, Stephan. (2009). "Considering Multiscalar Approaches to Creolization Among Enslaved Laborers at Estate Bethlehem, St. Croix, US Virgin Islands". International Journal of Historical Archaeology.
4. Wood, Margaret C.. (2012). "Mapping the Complexities of Race on the Landscape of the Colonial Caribbean, United States Virgin Islands, 1770-1917". Historical Archaeology.
5. Archives, Danish National. (2008-07-09). "English: Governor-General Peter von Scholten had this bilingual poster printed immediately on the night of July 3-4, 1848, publicizing his decision to abolish slavery effective immediately. The poster was put up everywhere in the Danish West Indies in the days to come. (The Danish National Archives).".
6. "The 1848 Story".
7. "A historical account of St. Thomas, W. I. : with its rise and progress in commerce, missions and churches, climate and its adaptation to invalids, geological structure, natural history, and botany: and incidental notices of St. Croix and St. Johns, slave insurrections in these islands, emancipation and present condition of the laboring classes {{!}} Library of Congress".
8. Marsh, Clifton E.. (1981). "A Socio-Historical Analysis of the Labor Revolt of 1878 in the Danish West Indies". Phylon.
9. Dixon, Euella. (September 12, 2020). "The Fireburn Labor Riot, Virgin Islands (1878)". BlackPast.
10. Marsh, Clifton E.. (1981). "A Socio-Historical Analysis of the Labor Revolt of 1878 in the Danish West Indies". Phylon.
11. Potter, Susanna. "Danish West Indies after emancipation".
12. Dookhan, Isaac. (1974). "A History of the Virgin Islands of the United States". Canoe Press.
13. Bastian, Jeannette Allis. (30 August 2003). "Owning Memory: How a Caribbean Community Lost Its Archives and Found Its History". Libraries Unlimited.
14. . (4 August 2004). ["Wayne James Says He's Found a 4th Fireburn 'Queen'"](http://stcroixsource.com/content/news/local-news/2004/08/05/wayne-james-says-hes-found-4th-fireburn-queen-1). *St. Croix Source*.
15. Marronage. (2019-12-02). "Marronage is Resistance Against the Colonizer's Construction of History". Nordisk Tidsskrift for Informationsvidenskab og Kulturformidling.
16. (2019-12-02). "Ancestral Queendom: Reflections on the Prison Records of the Rebel Queens of the 1878 Fireburn in St. Croix, USVI (formerly the Danish West Indies)". Nordisk Tidsskrift for Informationsvidenskab og Kulturformidling.
17. Jensen, Peter. (1998). "From Serfdom to Fireburn and Strike: The History of Black Labor in the Danish West Indies 1848-1917". Antilles Press.
18. Marsh, Clifton E.. (1981). "A Socio-Historical Analysis of the Labor Revolt of 1878 in the Danish West Indies". Phylon.
19. "New Statue Immortalizes Mary Thomas, Who Led a Revolt Against Danish Colonial Rule".
20. (31 March 2018). "Denmark Gets Statue of a 'Rebel Queen' Who Led Fiery Revolt Against Colonialism". The New York Times.
21. White, William A.. (2023-01-02). "Remembering Queen Mary: Heritage Conservation, Black People, Denmark, and St. Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands". Journal of African Diaspora Archaeology and Heritage.